Chapter 4:

DC Machines
Sub Topics:
Overview & Construction
Working Principle of DC Generator
Types of DC Generator
Types of DC Motor
 Overview of DC Machines
The direct current (dc) machine can be used as a motor or as a
generator.
DC Machine is most often used for a motor.
The major advantages of dc machines are the easy speed and torque
regulation.
However, their application is limited to mills, mines and trains. As
examples, trolleys and underground subway cars may use dc motors.

In the past, automobiles were equipped with dc dynamos to charge

their batteries.
 Even today the starter is a series dc motor
However, the recent development of power
electronics has reduced the use of dc motors and
generators.
The electronically controlled ac drives are gradually
replacing the dc motor drives in factories.
Nevertheless, a large number of dc motors are still
used by industry and several thousand are sold
annually.
 Construction of DC
machine

Cutaway view of a dc motor Stator with poles visible.

Construction of DC machine
segments

Rotor of a dc motor.

brushes
Construction of DC machine
Rotor is the rotating part - armature
Stator is the stationary part - field

Armature coil

Brushes

Stator: non-moving coil

Rotor: rotating part
ARMATURE
More loops of wire = higher rectified voltage
In practical, loops are generally placed in slots of an iron core
The iron acts as a magnetic conductor by providing a low-reluctance path for
magnetic lines of flux to increase the inductance of the loops and provide a higher
induced voltage.
The commutator is connected to the slotted iron core.
The entire assembly of iron core, commutator, and windings is called the armature.
The windings of armatures are connected in different ways depending on the
requirements of the machine.

Loops of wire are wound around slot in a metal core DC machine armature
FIELD WINDINGS
Most DC machines use wound electromagnets to provide the magnetic
field.

Two types of field windings are used :

series field
shunt field
Series Field Windings
are so named because they are connected in
series with the armature
are made with relatively few windings turns of
very large wire and have a very low resistance
usually found in large horsepower machines
wound with square or rectangular wire.
The use of square wire permits the windings to
be laid closer together, which increases the
number of turns that can be wound in a
particular space
Shunt Field Windings
is constructed with relatively many turns of small
wire, thus, it has a much higher resistance than the
series field.
is intended to be connected in parallel with, or
shunt, the armature.
high resistance is used to limit current flow through
the field.
Principle operation of Generator
Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic
field in such a way that the conductor cuts across
magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated in the
conductor.
The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on:
i. the strength of the magnetic field,
ii. the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field,
iii. the speed at which the conductor is moved, and
iv. the length of the conductor within the magnetic field
Principle of operation (Cont)
Flemings Right hand rule (Generator
Rule)
Use: To determine the direction of the induced emf/current of a conductor moving in a magnetic
field.
The POLARITY of the voltage depends on the direction of the magnetic lines of flux and the
direction of movement of the conductor.
THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR
The simplest elementary generator that can be built is
an ac generator.
Basic generating principles are most easily explained
through the use of the elementary ac generator.
For this reason, the ac generator will be discussed
first. The dc generator will be discussed later.
An elementary generator consists of a wire loop
mounted on the shaft, so that it can be rotated in a
stationary magnetic field.
This will produce an induced emf in the loop.
Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an
external circuit load in order to pick up or use the Elementary Generator
induced emf.
THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (Cont)
The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field. The pole
pieces are shaped and positioned as shown to concentrate the magnetic
field as close as possible to the wire loop.

The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called the ARMATURE. The
ends of the armature loop are connected to rings called SLIP RINGS. They
rotate with the armature.

The brushes, usually made of carbon, with wires attached to them, ride
against the rings. The generated voltage appears across these brushes.
(These brushes transfer power from the battery to the commutator as the
motor spins discussed later in dc elementary generator).
THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (A)
An end view of the shaft and wire loop is
shown.
At this particular instant, the loop of wire
(the black and white conductors of the
loop) is parallel to the magnetic lines of
flux, and no cutting action is taking place.
Since the lines of flux are not being cut by
the loop, no emf is induced in the
conductors, and the meter at this
position indicates zero.
This position is called the NEUTRAL
PLANE.
00 Position (Neutral Plane)
 THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (B)
The shaft has been turned 900 clockwise, the conductors
cut through more and more lines of flux, and voltage is
induced in the conductor.
at a continually increasing angle , the induced emf in the
conductors builds up from zero to a maximum value or
peak value.
Observe that from 00 to 900, the black conductor cuts
DOWN through the field.
At the same time the white conductor cuts UP through
the field.
The induced emfs in the conductors are series-adding.
This means the resultant voltage across the brushes (the
terminal voltage) is the sum of the two induced voltages.
The meter at position B reads maximum value. 900 Position
THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (C)
After another 900 of rotation, the loop has
completed 1800 of rotation and is again
parallel to the lines of flux.
As the loop was turned, the voltage
decreased until it again reached zero.
Note that : From 00 to 1800 the conductors
of the armature loop have been moving in
the same direction through the magnetic
field.
Therefore, the polarity of the induced
voltage has remained the same
1800 Position
THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (D)
As the loop continues to turn, the conductors
again cut the lines of magnetic flux.
This time, however, the conductor that previously
cut through the flux lines of the south magnetic
field is cutting the lines of the north magnetic
field, and vice-versa.
Since the conductors are cutting the flux lines of
opposite magnetic polarity, the polarity of the
induced voltage reverses.
After 270' of rotation, the loop has rotated to the
position shown, and the maximum terminal
voltage will be the same as it was from A to C
except that the polarity is reversed.
2700 Position
THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR (A)
After another 900 of rotation, the loop has
completed one rotation of 3600 and
returned to its starting position.
The voltage decreased from its negative
peak back to zero.
Notice that the voltage produced in the
armature is an alternating polarity. The
voltage produced in all rotating armatures
is alternating voltage.

3600 Position
Elementary Generator
(Conclusion)
Observes
The meter direction
The conductors of the armature loop
Direction of the current flow
THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
Since DC generators must produce DC current
instead of AC current, a device must be used to
change the AC voltage produced in the armature
windings into DC voltage.
This job is performed by the commutator.
The commutator is constructed from a copper ring
split into segments with insulating material
between the segments (See next page).
Brushes riding against the commutator segments
carry the power to the outside circuit.
The commutator in a dc generator replaces the slip
rings of the ac generator. This is the main
difference in their construction.
The commutator mechanically reverses the
armature loop connections to the external circuit.
THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
(Armature)
The armature has an axle, and the commutator is
attached to the axle.
In the diagram to the right, you can see three
different views of the same armature: front, side and
end-on.

In the end-on view, the winding is eliminated to

make the commutator more obvious.
We can see that the commutator is simply a pair of
plates attached to the axle.
These plates provide the two connections for the coil
of the electromagnet. Armature with commutator view
THE ELEMENTARY DC GENERATOR
(Commutator & Brushes work together)
The diagram at the right shows how the commutator and
brushes work together to let current flow to the electromagnet,
and also to flip the direction that the electrons are flowing at
just the right moment.
The contacts of the commutator are attached to the axle of the
electromagnet, so they spin with the magnet.
The brushes are just two pieces of springy metal or carbon that
make contact with the contacts of the commutator.
Through this process the commutator changes the generated ac
voltage to a pulsating dc voltage which also known as
commutation process.

Brushes and commutator

 THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR

The loop is parallel to the magnetic

lines of flux, and no voltage is induced
in the loop
Note that the brushes make contact
with both of the commutator segments
at this time. The position is called
neutral plane.

00 Position (DC Neutral Plane)

 THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
As the loop rotates, the conductors begin to
cut through the magnetic lines of flux.
The conductor cutting through the south
magnetic field is connected to the positive
brush, and the conductor cutting through
the north magnetic field is connected to the
negative brush.
Since the loop is cutting lines of flux, a
voltage is induced into the loop.
After 900 of rotation, the voltage reaches its
most positive point.
900 Position (DC)
 THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
As the loop continues to rotate, the
voltage decreases to zero.

After 1800 of rotation, the conductors

are again parallel to the lines of flux,
and no voltage is induced in the loop.

Note that the brushes again make

contact with both segments of the
commutator at the time when there
is no induced voltage in the
1800 Position (DC)
conductors
 THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
During the next 900 of rotation, the conductors again cut
through the magnetic lines of flux.
This time, however, the conductor that previously cut
through the south magnetic field is now cutting the flux
lines of the north field, and vice-versa. .
Since these conductors are cutting the lines of flux of
opposite magnetic polarities, the polarity of induced voltage
is different for each of the conductors. The commutator,
however, maintains the correct polarity to each brush.
The conductor cutting through the north magnetic field will
always be connected to the negative brush, and the
conductor cutting through the south field will always be
connected to the positive brush.
Since the polarity at the brushes has remained constant, the 2700 Position (DC)
voltage will increase to its peak value in the same direction.
 THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
As the loop continues to rotate, the induced
voltage again decreases to zero when the
conductors become parallel to the magnetic
lines of flux.

Notice that during this 3600 rotation of the

loop the polarity of voltage remained the
same for both halves of the waveform. This is
called rectified DC voltage.

The voltage is pulsating. It does turn on and

00 Position (DC Neutral Plane)
off, but it never reverses polarity. Since the
polarity for each brush remains constant, the
output voltage is DC.
THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
Observes
The meter direction
The conductors of the armature loop
Direction of the current flow
DC Generator Equivalent circuit

The magnetic field produced by the stator poles induces a

voltage in the rotor (or armature) coils when the generator
is rotated.
This induced voltage is represented by a voltage source.
The stator coil has resistance, which is connected in series.
The pole flux is produced by the DC excitation/field current,
which is magnetically coupled to the rotor
The field circuit has resistance and a source
The voltage drop on the brushes represented by a battery

31
Separately excited
The field flux is derived from a separate power source
independent of the generator itself.

B
Armature
Field winding
winding
Self-excited Shunt Generator

The field flux is derived by connecting

the field directly across the terminals of
the generator.

B
Compounded dc generator
both a shunt and a series
field are present
Equivalent circuit of a DC motor
The armature circuit (the entire
rotor structure) is represented by
an ideal voltage source EA and a
resistor RA. A battery Vbrush in the
opposite to a current flow in the
machine direction indicates brush
voltage drop.
The field coils producing the
magnetic flux are represented by
inductor LF and resistor RF. The
resistor Radj represents an
external variable resistor
(sometimes lumped together with
the field coil resistance) used to
control the amount of current in
the field circuit.
Equivalent circuit of a DC motor
Sometimes, when the brush drop voltage is small, it may be left out. Also, some
DC motors have more than one field coil
The internal generated voltage in the machine is

E A = Kw (5.43.1)

The induced torque developed by the machine is

t ind = K I A (5.43.2)

Here K is the constant depending on the design of a particular DC machine (number

and commutation of rotor coils, etc.) and is the total flux inside the machine.

Note that for a single rotating loop K = /2.

Magnetization curve of a DC machine

The internal generated voltage EA is directly proportional to the flux in the machine
and the speed of its rotation.
The field current in a DC machine produces a field mmf F = NFIF, which produces a
flux in the machine according to the magnetization curve.

or in terms
of internal
voltage vs.
field
current for
a given
speed.

To get the maximum possible power per weight out of the machine, most motors
and generators are operating near the saturation point on the magnetization curve.
Therefore, when operating at full load, often a large increase in current IF may be
needed for small increases in the generated voltage EA.
Motor Separately excited and Shunt DC motors

Note: when
the voltage to
the field circuit
is assumed
constant,
there is no
difference
between
them
Separately excited DC motor:
a field circuit is supplied from a Shunt DC motor:
separate constant voltage power a field circuit gets its power from the
source. armature terminals of the motor.
For the armature circuit of these motors:

VT = E A + I A RA (5.45.1)
 Shunt motor: terminal characteristic

Assuming that the terminal voltage and other terms are constant, the motors
speed vary linearly with torque.

However, if a motor has an armature reaction, flux-weakening reduces the flux

when torque increases. Therefore, the motors speed will increase. If a shunt (or
separately excited) motor has compensating windings, and the motors speed
and armature current are known for any value of load, its possible to calculate
the speed for any other value of load.
 Shunt motor: terminal characteristic
Example
Example 5.1: A 50 hp, 250 V, 1200 rpm DC shunt motor with compensating windings
has an armature resistance (including the brushes, compensating windings, and
interpoles) of 0.06 . Its field circuit has a total resistance Radj + RF of 50 , which
produces a no-load speed of 1200 rpm. The shunt field winding has 1200 turns per
pole. a) Find the motor speed when its input current is 100 A.
b) Find the motor speed when its input current is 200 A.
c) Find the motor speed when its input current is 300 A.
d) Plot the motor torque-speed characteristic.
Shunt motor: Speed control
There are two methods to control the speed of a shunt DC motor:
1. Adjusting the field resistance RF (and thus the field flux)
2. Adjusting the terminal voltage applied to the armature

1. Adjusting the field resistance

1) Increasing field resistance RF decreases the field current (IF = VT/RF);
2) Decreasing field current IF decreases the flux ;
3) Decreasing flux decreases the internal generated voltage (EA = Kw);
4) Decreasing EA increases the armature current (IA = (VT EA)/RA);
5) Changes in armature current dominate over changes in flux; therefore,
increasing IA increases the induced torque (tind = KIA);
6) Increased induced torque is now larger than the load torque tload and, therefore,
the speed w increases;
7) Increasing speed increases the internal generated voltage EA;
8) Increasing EA decreases the armature current IA
9) Decreasing IA decreases the induced torque until tind = tload at a higher speed w.
Shunt motor: Speed control

The effect of increasing the field

resistance within a normal load
range: from no load to full load.

Increase in the field resistance

increases the motor speed. Observe
also that the slope of the speed-torque
curve becomes steeper when field
resistance increases.
Shunt motor: Speed control

The effect of increasing the field

resistance with over an entire load
range: from no-load to stall.

At very slow speeds (overloaded

motor), an increase in the field
resistance decreases the speed. In this
region, the increase in armature current
is no longer large enough to
compensate for the decrease in flux.

Some small DC motors used in control circuits may operate at speeds close to stall
conditions. For such motors, an increase in field resistance may have no effect (or
opposite to the expected effect) on the motor speed. The result of speed control by
field resistance is not predictable and, thus, this type of control is not very common.
Shunt motor: Speed control
2. Changing the armature voltage
This method implies changing the voltage applied to the armature of the
motor without changing the voltage applied to its field. Therefore, the
motor must be separately excited to use armature voltage control.

Armature
voltage speed
control
Shunt motor: Speed control
1) Increasing the armature voltage VA increases the armature current (IA = (VA -
EA)/RA);
2) Increasing armature current IA increases the induced torque tind (tind = KIA);
3) Increased induced torque tind is now larger than the load torque tload and,
therefore, the speed w;
4) Increasing speed increases the internal generated voltage (EA = Kw);
5) Increasing EA decreases the armature current IA
6) Decreasing IA decreases the induced torque until tind = tload at a higher speed w.
Increasing the armature voltage of a
separately excited DC motor does not
change the slope of its torque-speed
characteristic.
Shunt motor: Speed control
If a motor is operated at its rated terminal voltage, power, and field current, it will be
running at the rated speed also called a base speed.
Field resistance control can be used for speeds above the base speed but not
below it. Trying to achieve speeds slower than the base speed by the field circuit
control, requires large field currents that may damage the field winding.
Since the armature voltage is limited to its rated value, no speeds exceeding the
base speed can be achieved safely while using the armature voltage control.
Therefore, armature voltage control can be used to achieve speeds below the base
speed, while the field resistance control can be used to achieve speeds above the
base speed.

Shunt and separately excited DC motors have excellent speed control

characteristic.
Shunt motor: Speed control
For the armature voltage control, the flux in the motor is constant. Therefore, the
maximum torque in the motor will be constant too regardless the motor speed:

t max = K I A,max (5.64.1)

Since the maximum power of the motor is

Pmax = t maxw (5.64.2)

The maximum power out of the motor is directly proportional to its speed.

For the field resistance control, the maximum power out of a DC motor is
constant, while the maximum torque is reciprocal to the motor speed.
Shunt motor: Speed control

Torque and power limits as functions of motor speed for a shunt (or separately
excited) DC motor.
Shunt motor: Speed control: Ex
Example 5.3: A 100 hp, 250 V, 1200 rpm DC shunt motor with an armature
resistance of 0.03 and a field resistance of 41.67 . The motor has compensating
windings, so armature reactance can be ignored. Mechanical and core losses may
be ignored also. The motor is driving a load with a line current of 126 A and an initial
speed of 1103 rpm. Assuming that the armature current is constant and the
magnetization curve is

a) What is the motor speed if the field

resistance is increased to 50 ?
b) Calculate the motor speed as a function of
the field resistance, assuming a constant-
current load.
c) Assuming that the motor next is
connected as a separately excited and is
initially running with VA = 250 V, IA = 120 A
and at n = 1103 rpm while supplying a
constant-torque load, estimate the motor
speed if VA is reduced to 200 V.
Motor types: The series DC motor
A series DC motor is a DC motor whose field windings consists of a
relatively few turns connected in series with armature circuit. Therefore:

VT = E A + I A ( RA + Rs ) (5.75.1)
 Series motor: induced
torque
The terminal characteristic of a series DC motor is quite different from that of the
shunt motor since the flux is directly proportional to the armature current
(assuming no saturation). An increase in motor flux causes a decrease in its
speed; therefore, a series motor has a dropping torque-speed characteristic.
The induced torque in a series machine is

t ind = K I A (5.76.1)

Since the flux is proportional to the armature current:

= cI A (5.76.2)

where c is a proportionality constant. Therefore, the torque is

t ind = KcI 2
A (5.76.3)

Torque in the motor is proportional to the square of its armature current. Series
motors supply the highest torque among the DC motors. Therefore, they are used
as car starter motors, elevator motors etc.
 Series motor: terminal characteristic
Example
Example 5.4: A 250 V series DC motor with compensating windings has a total
series resistance RA + RS of 0.08 . The series field consists of 25 turns per pole and
the magnetization curve is
a) Find the speed and induced
torque of this motor when its
armature current is 50 A.
b) Calculate and plot its torque-
speed characteristic.
Series motor: Speed control

The only way to control speed of a series DC motor is by

changing its terminal voltage, since the motor speed is
directly proportional to its terminal voltage for any given
torque.
 Motor types: Compounded DC motor

A compounded DC motor is a motor with both a shunt and a series field.

Current flowing into a dotted

end of a coil (shunt or series)
produces a positive mmf.
Long-shunt
connection
If current flows into the
dotted ends of both coils, the
resulting mmfs add to
produce a larger total mmf
cumulative compounding.

If current flows into the dotted end of

one coil and out of the dotted end of Short-shunt
another coil, the resulting mmfs connection
subtract differential compounding.
Motor types: Compounded DC motor

The Kirchhoffs voltage law equation for a compounded DC motor is

VT = E A + I A ( RA + RS ) (5.85.1)

The currents in a compounded DC motor are

I A = IL - IF (5.85.2)

VT
IF = (5.85.3)
RF
The mmf of a compounded DC motor: Cumulatively compounded

Fnet = FF FSE - FAR (5.85.4)

Differentially compounded
The effective shunt field current in a compounded DC motor:
N SE FAR
I = IF +
*
F IA - (5.85.5)
NF NF Number of turns
 Cumulatively compounded motors:
torque-speed characteristic
In a cumulatively compounded motor, there is a constant component of flux and a
component proportional to the armature current (and thus to the load). These motors
have a higher starting torque than shunt motors (whose flux is constant) but lower
than series motors (whose flux is proportional to the armature current).
The series field has a small effect at light loads the motor behaves as a shunt
motor. The series flux becomes quite large at large loads the motor acts like a
series motor.
Similar (to the previously discussed)
approach is used for nonlinear analysis of
compounded motors.
 Differentially compounded motors:
torque-speed characteristic
Since the shunt mmf and series mmf subtract from each other in a differentially
compounded motor, increasing load increases the armature current IA and
decreases the flux. When flux decreases, the motor speed increases further
increasing the load. This results in an instability (much worse than one of a shunt
motor) making differentially compounded motors unusable for any applications.
In addition to that, these motors are not
easy to start The motor typically
remains still or turns very slowly
consuming enormously high armature
current.

Stability problems and huge starting

armature current lead to these motors
being never used intentionally.
 Compounded DC motor:
Example
Example 5.5: A 100 hp, 250 V compounded DC motor with compensating windings
has an internal resistance, including the series winding of 0.04 . There are 1000
turns per pole on the shunt field and 3 turns per pole on the series windings. The
magnetization curve is shown below.
The field resistor has been adjusted for the
motor speed of 1200 rpm. The mechanical,
core, and stray losses may be neglected.
a)Find the no-load shunt field current.
Find the speed at IA = 200 A if the motor is b)
cumulatively; c) differentially compounded
Cumulatively compounded motors: speed control

The same two techniques that have been discussed for a shunt motor
are also available for speed control of a cumulatively compounded
motor.

1. Adjusting the field resistance RF;

2. Adjusting the armature voltage VA.

The details of these methods are very similar to already discussed for
shunt DC motors.