Chapter 6 - Electricity (& Magnetism)

Electricity - deals with interactions

between electric charges
* causes forces motion
* two types of charges:
+ positive proton
- negative electron

Ancient Greeks - rub amber and it attracts

small objects
electron - from Greek for amber
Law of Electric charges - basic law of interaction
opposites attract, likes repel
Where do charges come from?
Atomic Theory - smallest particles of nature
Neutral atom
- +
nucleus - made of protons
- + + - fixed positions
- electrons - tiny negatives
++
++ - - move quickly around nucleus
-
- - some move between atoms
- remove electrons - add electrons
transfer charges between objects
 Charges are transferred between objects

ions - charged atoms

atom acquires extra electron - negative ion
loses an electron (to another atom) - positive ion

Rub balloon on your hair-

electrons transferred to balloon (friction)
balloon acquires negative charge

+- no
+- -
- -- + -- + -++ forces
-- +- --
+

force from balloon charge

attracts +, repels - attracted to balloon

Induced charge - uses law of electric

charges to separate charge

LAW OF CHARGE CONSERVATION - when one

body acquires a charge from another, the second
acquires an equal and opposite charge from the first
-net charge in universe constant
-charge neither created nor destroyed
charges dont just appear out of nowhere!
 Electrical properties of materials
Two general behaviors of matter regarding electricity:
how they act in the presence of charge

Conductors - transmit charge readily

+ fixed nucleus
+ + + +
e- strongly held e-
+ + + +

conductor loosely held e-

Also conduct heat well move from atom to atom
from motion of e- path for e- to travel

Example: wires - transport charge for use in circuits

Insulators - charge cannot freely move

+ + + + no loose e-
get stuck on surface
+ + + +
poor heat conductors
 Some materials have both properties
atmospheric air
nitrogen water (humidity)
Oxygen Polar - act like
Carbon dioxide separated charge
+ -
GOOD GOOD
INSULATOR CONDUCTOR
damp day - charges leak off
water molecules form chains
to drain e- to ground

SEMICONDUCTORS - properties of both

normally insulators
add energy loosely held states
energy from light, heat, electrical
used as switches - add energy for charge to flow

Electrostatics - charge is confined to an object

- charge assumed not moving
- static electricity - accumulated charge at rest
like charge on balloon
or charge on your body from walking
 Electroscope - early device used to
measure charge
add charge here

metal leaves (gold)

spread apart when charged
-likes repel
-more charge, spread more

Methods to charge objects:

conduction and induction (and friction)

CONDUCTION touch two charged objects

together to transfer charge

spark
neutral charge transferred charge shared
electroscope leaves move apart

charge becomes evenly distributed

 Charge by INDUCTION two objects never actually touch
charge by using electric forces (induced charge)
NO DIRECT CONTACT
bring charged rod close-
+++
+ pushes e- away
leaves separate
-- --
e- try to get as
far away as possible
neutral
electroscope still neutral
same number of + as -

+++
+
connection to ground e-
e- can get even further
from charged rod
leaves fall
now positively charged (Earth) Ground
- - reservoir of electrons
But still connected to ground -
- can accept or donate
any number of e-
w/ no resistance
+ +
Break connection w/ ground
+ + e- cant go back
leaves try to get as far
Remove the charged rod
+ redistribute away as possible
leaves separate for good
NET POSITIVE CHARGE

Separate because likes repel like hair in Van de Graaf demo

 ELECTRIC forces between charges
CHARGE physical quantity; described by the Coulomb
SI UNIT : for charge (Q,q) Coulomb (C)

actually very large charge, 10-6 C on a balloon (mC, nC)

FUNDAMENTAL CHARGE
electron (e-) charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C
cannot transfer less than 1 e- to charge objects
all charge in multiples of an electron fundamental
charge not continuous

Coulombs Law - forces on charges

F=k q1q2 / d 2 empirical-

brute force
stiff
F wire simpler model
from calib q1 q2
q1
d
d
q2
F = force (in N)
q1, q2 charges (in C)
d - separation between charges (m)
k = 9x109 Nm2/C2
Coulomb constant
Coulomb actually measured!
 Force is a vector direction important
force acts along a line
F=k q1q2 / d 2 joining two charges

+ and +
or
_ and _ } positive force
charges repel

+ and - } negative force

charges attract
or just remember opposites attract, likes repel

Example: What is the electric force between an

electron and proton in a hydrogen atom,
spaced about 0.53 A apart?
1 A = 10-10 m
model
qp= +1.6x10-19 C
-19
protonpositive charge + - q e = - 1.6x10 C
equal to magnitude of e-
d=5.3x10-11 m

Another example: A balloon charged to 3.4x10-5 C is

located 2.6 m from a can charged at -5.6x10-5 C. What
is the direction and magnitude of the force between them?
 Application: Lightning electric discharge from clouds
Ben Franklin first to experiment F=k q1q2 / d 2
with lightning
+ + + + Large distance but
huge charge big F
- - -- - -
+ + ++ +
-- ---
water evaporates
ionized by high
+ +
+
velocity motion

Induces charge on objects

Puts force on cloud charges
greatest force for highest objects (d smaller)
Gigantic discharge great amount of charge in cloud
causes destructive damage because
of energy stored
ground to cloud, or cloud to ground (depends on charge)

lightning rod sticks above buildings to attract charge

thick wire connects to ground
bypasses building to ground
destructive energy goes directly to ground

Heat lightning lightning between clouds from a distance

Electric Batteries - galvanic cells

History - Galvani and Volta

observed frog leg twitch in
presence of dissimilar metals

Galvani: animal electricity

stored electricity released when
tissue touches metal

Volta: dissimilar metals in contact through

a solution produce a current
Led to idea of (flow of electrons)
galvanic cell - battery
produces
electric current
C Zn
positive terminal negative terminal
+
+ -
+
-
stores charge- +
-
- discharge-dead
Hook up to use + - metals used up
electrons can flow + -
e-

Electrolyte- conducting solution

Chemical work-energy to move e- from + to - terminal
provides energy
e-
for electrical work
- light bulb heats

- + e- uses energy as it goes from

- terminal to + terminal
battery used up when metal used up
RECHARGABLE - able to reverse chemical process
lithium ion, NiCad, wet/dry cell, fuel cells, solar

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE - voltage

Describes amount of chemical energy available to charge

V = Work/q work per charge J/C SI Volt (V)

how much work a charge is able to do
related to chemical work (potential)
PE or Work W=qV
Increase battery :voltage (potential)
add more galvanic cells
wires - no energy lost by e-
} 3X voltage
of a single cell
-+ -+ -+
Connected in series
FORCE FIELDS - visual representation of
invisibleaction-at-a-distance
interactions
-shows lines of force - extends all thru space
- force on object in direction of lines
- measure with test particle (field map)
test mass
Example: gravity
Mass feels force
from touching field
Field points IN mass
-attractive force
-mass follows line

ELECTRIC FIELD - positive test charge to measure

long distance force of charges
Positive charge will go:

outward Force along field lines inward

repulsive attractive
+ -
 Magnetism - acts between moving charges
- current

ANCIENT GREEKS
lodestone-natural magnet like magnetite
attracts small pieces of iron

Magnetic fields different from other forces

1. Field not in direction of force
force perpendicular to field
2. NO MAGNETIC MONOPOLES
-cannot isolate poles
North and South poles always paired

Field lines form closed loops!

N
point from N. Pole to S. Pole

CANNOT SPLIT POLES

S
N Break apart -
S get 2 magnets
both have N & S
N
S

SIMILARITIES:
Like poles repel, opposite poles attract
EARTHS Magnetic Field
Motion of molten iron core

N
S
EARTH Compass
N
S S. Pole of compass
magnet points to
S N
N. Pole of Earth

Earth North Pole for navigation

Deflects solar wind - high energy

particles ejected from Sun
 Magnetism from electricity
What causes magnetism?

Oersted A current (electron flow) causes a force on

a compass needle

SI UNIT
Current I = Q / t (C/s=Ampere = 1 A)
how fast electrons are flowing in a wire
N
S

I (current)
N S
S N

Force perpendicular to
both magnet and current
S
N

Compass needle points around in

circle surrounding wire
magnetic field forms
circle around wire

A current exerts a force on a

permanent magnet!
Ampere - two currents exert forces on each other
no permanent magnets involved!

Magnetism-
I 2 has to do with
two wires are attracted moving charges
I 1
If currents opposite repel

Also invented solenoid electromagnet (wire coiled on bolt)

loop of wire produces

field through center

Coil intensifies
the magnetic field at the center:
Looks like bar magnet
magnetic domains
domain
Permanent magnets: boundaries
Electrons in atoms move electric currents
produce field
Atomic magnets line up in
magnetic materials:
iron, nickel, cobalt, etc.
Electricity from magnetism
Faraday : can magnetism produce electricity?
-built on Oersteds & Amperes results
Coil and galvanometer
magnetic sitting in field - no current
take out - current flows
put in - current flows

Faradays Law of Induction

induced voltage and current produced by
changing magnetic field or circuit motion
in field electromagnetic induction
Dynamo - electric generator
uses mechanical energy
to produce electricity
turbine turns circuit in magnet
water wheel, steam. Nuclear

Produces current- electricity

force electrons through a circuit
Applications of Electromagnetism

Electric meter - detects flowing currents

galvanometer
-coil wound on on pointer needle
-force when current flows in magnet
-force bigger when current larger
use to measure I, V, and R

Electromagnetic Switch (Relay)

-small switch closes to
produce small current in
solenoid
-solenoid produces magnetic
field to pull in metal contact
so larger current can flow
 Telephone
-receiver - carbon granules
compress with diaphragm
changing resistance
-changes current which is
transmitted

Speaker
-current changes in magnetic
field
-force on coil moves cone

Electric Motor

-converts electrical energy to

mechanical energy
-rotating electromagnet spins in
stationary magnetic field
-electromagnet current changes
direction to maintain rotation
(always repels in magnet)
-armature and commutator
change current
-generator in reverse
 Electric currents provide electrical work

- +

Electric current - flow of charge

from induced current (generator) or battery
I = charge passing a certain point
= Q / t = J/s (Ampere)
time

Historically: Ben Franklin(first to experiment with electricity)

Wrongly assumed + charges move
conventional current -still used today
Actually - charges move in typical circuits - + fixed
current is flow of electrons in wire
Electric field in wires forces e- to go from - to + .
Does work on electrons - gives them energy
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE - energy/charge available
to electrons - voltage
V=work/charge = (Work Energy) / q
SI: J/C = Volt (V)
provides energy to circuits!
Example : Car battery
A 12 V car battery is used to start a car. If 1x109
electrons go from the negative terminal to the
positive terminal, then how much work is done?
charge equivalent: 1 e- = 1.6x10-19 C
V = W/q W = qV

current flow in wires e- make collisions w/ atoms

in wire
-does not accelerate
e- -lose energy
-move at a very small
E speed (drift velocity)

Electric field moves at speed of light

electrons move very slowly (hours to
from switch to light socket)

Large number of charges (1015) produce

current - drip out like full water hose
George Simon Ohm -
how current flows in conductors

Current depends on
-+ V potential difference (V)
A
OHMS LAW
I=V/ R

R - resistance to a flow
of current
how difficult it is to pass
a current
Resistance (R) SI: Volt/Amp = ohms (W)
how energy is lost - flow of electrons impeded
depends on:
- type of material (copper, gold, graphite)
- length of wire - longer, more resistance
- cross-sectional area
thinner wire, more resistive
less charge can flow
- temperature
superconducting @ low T - no R!

How current flows determines how circuits work!

 Combinations of resistances
most circuits are combinations
of resistances R
and batteries V
+ -
and wires-
connections with no resistance

Two ways to combine resistors:

SERIES COMBINATION - same current

thru each resistor
R1 R2 R3
Req
I

V V
equivalent
circuit
Equivalent - Total - Combined Resistance:
total bigger Req = Rtot = R1 + R2 + R3
than individual looks like a longer resistor
-each will resist current
Can analyze I-V characteristics of circuit
How much I
with Ohms Law V = I Req battery life
 Parallel Combination of resistors
Divided circuit in which the current can
travel in multiple paths
same potential difference
R1
across each component
R2
Req
R3
V
equivalent
circuit
V
Combined Resistance:
Total smaller 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/ R3
than individuals
must take reciprocal for Req
path of least resistance - most of the divided current
will go through resistor with the smallest resistance

For parallel, current can bypass

broken circuit (burned out) elements

Christmas lights - will stay lit even

if one light burns out

Home outlets wired in parallel

 Example : light bulbs
1. Three light bulbs with resistances of 5 W, 8 W,
and 12 W are connected in parallel across a
5 V battery.
a) What is the total (combined, equivalent)
resistance of the combination?
b) How much current is drawn from the battery?
REMEMBER for parallel : flip for resistance

2. Three light bulbs are connected in series across

a 20 V battery. The resistance values of the light
bulbs are all 5 W.
a) What is the equivalent resistance of the combination?
b) What is the current flowing thru the circuit?
 Heat Power of Currents
Collision of electrons with atoms
- hit atoms
- atoms vibrate (gain energy)
-heats wire- JOULE HEATING
JOULES LAW - wires heat up as current
V flows
P= I 2R
A
***remember power=(work energy)
time
more current -
e- make more collisions
higher resistance-
more energy lost to atoms
Joules material impedes flow
Experiment

P = I 2R
Can rewrite with
Ohms Law = V2/ R
(V=IR) =IV
most general

Example: car revisited

How much energy is used to start a car?
The car uses 10 A for 4 second with a 12 V car battery.
 More examples:

A radio uses 0.5 A through a resistance of 6 W

During operation. How much power is consumed?

A 3 W lightbulb is connected is connected to a 120 V

Source of potential difference. How much power
is used?

Joule heating used in many

electrical applications
-hair dryer
-space-heater
-toaster
-stove
-lightbulb - filament heated to > 2500oC

Heat generated also a problem

Broken cord: loose connection
P = I 2R
high resistance heat

Short circuit: bypasses load I=V/R

large current heat
 Power Stations provide current to homes
Called power station because it provides
current and voltage

Dont pay for power

Pay for energy!
kilowatt-hour meter
E=Pt

Safety device to limit dangerous current

fuse- filament heats up too much
I from I to and will melt
plant house -connection to current
source broken
-circuit breaker similar
Low melting point conductor

Voltage lost as current

travels along power lines
Joule heating
TRANSFORMER
steps up the voltage
But at the expense of the current
Constant power device P=IV
increase V, decrease I

primary coil
Changes voltage by
secondary coil