Flight Instruments

Flight Instruments Overview

Understanding will increase ability to safely utilize the instruments
Three Categories:
Pitot-Static
Gyroscopic
Magnetic

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Pitot-Static System
Consists of Three Instruments
and Related Components:
Air Speed Indicator
Altimeter
Vertical Speed Indicator
All about pressures

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Instrument Locations

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Pitot-Static System
Uses pitot tube to sense total air pressure (dynamic + static)
Static port to sense the static pressure within the dynamic flow

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Altimeter
Only instrument to show altitude
Most vital
Uses an aneroid wafer to hold ISA pressure
Senses the difference between the outside static pressure and the
pressure in the aneroid wafer
Difference is transmitted through gears to indicate altitude above ISA

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Types of Altitudes
Indicated: Read off the altimeter
Pressure: Altitude above the Standard Datum Plane (ISA)
Density: Pressure altitude corrected for variations in temperature
True: Altitude above sea level (MSL)
Absolute: Altitude above ground (AGL)

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Pressure Altitude
Indicated Altitude when Kollsman Window set to 29.92

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Calculating Pressure Altitude
To calculate pressure altitude:
PA = field elevation + (29.92 altimeter setting) x 1000

Note: Elevation refers to physical height above sea level;

it can be an altitude in flight

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Density Altitude
Density of a medium is affected by the temperature
Think of molasses: is it harder or easier when it is warm?
Density of Air has a direct effect on:
Lif
Prop Efficiency
Engine Power Output
The 3 Hs:
High
Hot
Humid
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Density Altitude
Density of a medium is affected by the temperature
Think of molasses: is it harder or easier when it is warm?
Density of Air has a direct effect on:
Lif
Prop Efficiency
Engine Power Output
The 3 Hs:
High
Hot
Humid
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Calculating Density Altitude
To calculate Density Altitude:
DA = PA + (120 x (OAT C ISA temperature C))

Note: ISA refers to the temperature it should be at the local altitude

under standard temperature conditions. Example, sea level = 15C,
6000 feet = 3C. (use the temperature lapse rate of 2C per 1000
increase in altitude)

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Hazards of Pressure
High to low, look out below
Go from High to Low pressure
Difference between static and reference pressure in the wafer
becomes larger and causes an increase in altitude
The pilot will view this disturbance and descend which places him at a
lower true altitude and consequently, a lower absolute altitude

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Hazards of Pressure

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Hazards of Temperature
Hot to cold, look out below
Go from Hot area to Cold area
Same pressure sensed by the altimeter will occur at a lower true
altitude
Places the airplane at a lower absolute altitude
The atmosphere compresses (contracts) when cold

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Hazards of Temperature

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Hazard Remedies
Update altimeter settings frequently as practical through nearest
weather or controller
Dont forget: 1 Hg variation = 1000 feet difference.
Not easily noticeable in flight because the pilot steadily
decreases/increases true altitude while the altimeter is held constant
Check altimeter prior to flight: 75 feet

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Vertical Speed Indicator
Shows a climb or descent rate
Instrument Relies upon static pressure and is used to sense a change
in pressure
Compares instantaneous reference of static pressure within a
diaphragm to a delayed reference of static pressure within the case
Trend information: Initial indication can be used to make minor
corrections during flight
Rate Information: Shows a stabilized rate of change in altitude

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Vertical Speed Indicator
The case contains a
diaphragm connected
directly to the static line
The case is connected
to the static line
through a calibrated
leak

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VSI Instrument Check
Should indicate 0 before flight
Stuck on different indication? No problem!
Use new indication as the baseline

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Airspeed Indicator
Utilizes both the pitot tube and the static port
Supplies two pressures: Ram and Static
References the two against each other to show difference
Difference is read in Knots
Most susceptible to blocks, consider a pitot tube cover

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Airspeed Indicator
The case contains a
diaphragm connected to the
pitot (ram air) line
The case is connected to the
static line

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Types of Airspeed
Indicated: Direct from instrument. No compensation for errors (KIAS)
Calibrated: KIAS corrected for instrument installation error (KCAS)
Equivalent: KCAS corrected for compressibility effects (EAS)
True Airspeed: EAS corrected for temperature and altitude (TAS)
Groundspeed: Speed above the ground (GS)
Boat Analogy

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Airspeed Indicator Markings
White Arc: Flap Operating Range
Green Arc: Normal Operating
Range
Yellow Arc: Cautionary Range
(Smooth air only)
Red Line: Never Exceed Speed

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Airspeed Limitations
VSO Stall Speed (Flaps Extended)
VS1 Stall Speed (Normal Condition)
VX Best Angle of Climb
VY Best Rate of Climb
VFE Flap Extension Speed
VA Maneuvering Speed
VNO Normal Operating Limit
VNE Maximum Structural Cruising Speed

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Socrative Short Answer
VSO 45
VS1 50
VX 64
VY 76
VFE 102
VA 89 - 113
VNO 125
VNE 154
Archer 3 Airspeed Indicator

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Airspeed Instrument Check
Should read 0 or slightly moving in a strong headwind
Checked for function on the takeoff roll
Abort takeoff if no indication on takeoff roll

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Pitot Static Errors
If instruments dont agree, assume error
Two fail-safes:
Alternate Static Source
Pitot Heat

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Blocked Static System
Altimeter Stays Frozen
VSI remains zero as it cannot sense a differential
Airspeed Indicator will give inaccurate readings
Will act as an altimeter
Why is this dangerous?
Think too fast on approach, inducing a stall

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Blocked Pitot Tube
Airspeed Indicator reads 0
Land as soon as practical
Proper Pitch and Power Produces a Predictable Performance

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Blocked Pitot Tube Drain Hole
Not applicable to Piper, but possible in Cessna
Increases airspeed in climb, decreases airspeed in descent

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The Pitot Static Mast
Incorporates the Pitot Tube and
Static Ports all-in-one
One Pitot Hole
Two Static Holes for Varying
Angles of Attack

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Gyroscopic Principles
Rigidity in Space
Newtons First: Object at rest stays at rest
Allows a basketball player to spin a ball on the tip of his finger
Spin up a gyro, use it as a reference to identify deviations from the original
rotational plane
Precession
Turning/Tilting characteristic
Force applied, realized 90 degrees in the direction gyro is spinning
Friction/External Forces can cause a gyro to wander from original location
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Gyroscopic Power
Powered by electrical system
Driven by air pressure from a vacuum pump

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Vacuum System
Consists of Two Instruments and
Related Components:
Attitude Indicator
Heading Indicator
(Directional Gyro)
All about spinning wheels

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Instrument Locations

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Attitude Indicator
Provides Pitch and Bank information
Gyro spins on a horizontal plane
Gyro moves in the roll / pitch axes and attached to a card that faces
the pilot
Card has horizon, pitch and bank information on it
Plane is really moving around the gyro

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Attitude Indicator Check
Should be aligned within 5 minutes
Adjust the miniature airplane to the horizon from your POV
5 degrees of difference
A note about pendulous vanes

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Heading Indicator
Heading information without the nuisance of compass errors
Gyro stays in a vertical plane
Is subject to errors cause by friction at about 15 degrees per hour

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Heading Indicator Check
Align to magnetic heading every 15 minutes and at beginning of flight
Should indicate known headings during taxi
Match the magnetic compass during straight and level, unaccelerated
flight

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Electrical Gyroscopic Instruments
One Instruments is powered by Electricity supplied by the Battery:
Turn Coordinator
Still operates on the same principles as vacuum system

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Instrument Locations

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Turn Coordinator / Slip-Skid Indicator
Instrument relies on controlled precession in order to indicate rate of
turn
Mounting of the gyro allows to sense both roll rate and turn rate
Reacts to movement about horizontal plane as af pressure increases
Powered by an electric motor
Slip and Skid indicator indicates Yaw
Maintain coordinated flight (perpendicular to relative wind)

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How does the TC Work?
Uses principle of precession
Yaw from turn causes force on
side of gyro
Force is translated 90 deg in
direction of spin, which rolls the
gyro and mini airplane or needle

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Skidding vs. Slipping
Skidding Turn
Nose is yawed in the direction of the turn
Slipping Turn
Nose is yawed away from the direction of the turn

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Turn Coordinator Check
Checked while taxiing
Airplane indicate a turn in the direction the plane is moving
Ball should move outside of the turn

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Magnetic Instruments
One magnetic compass
Affected by the earths magnetic fields

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Magnetism
Magnet is a piece of metal containing iron that has a north and south
pole which attracts magnetic flux
The earth acts as a giant magnet, so a magnet can be aligned with the
earths flux fields
Magnet floats in kerosene fluid and is always trying to stay with
magnetic north
Airplane pivots around the compass
Pilot sees headings as etched into the card

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Compass Errors - Variation
The difference between true and
magnetic north
Aeronautical charts referenced to true
Runways aligned with magnetic
Variation needs to be taken into
consideration

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Compass Errors - Deviation
Any error caused by a magnetic field other than the earths
This could be a battery, magneto, alternator, or other electromagnetic
disturbance
When a mechanic aligns the aircraf with known magnetic headings,
he can denote deviation
Compass Deviation Card

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Magnetic Dip
Occurs when lines of flux dip into the earth over the poles
Compass has a dip compensating weight
Weight is the cause of northerly turning errors
Also the cause of acceleration errors

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Northerly Turning Error
Undershoot North
Overshoot South
UNOS

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Acceleration Error
On an East or West Heading
Acceleration indicates a turn to the North
Deceleration (or negative acceleration) indicates a turn to the south
ANDS

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Oscillation Error
Combination of all the errors results in small movements, or swings in
the compass indications
Why we use the heading indicator in IMC

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Digital Flight Instruments
Newer Aircraf include a PFD and MFD
Primary Flight Display and Multi-Function Display
Both integrate all of the engine parameter and flight instruments into
two large, panel mounted screens

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PFD
Turn
Coordinator VSI

Airspeed
Altitude

Heading

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MFD

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Required Instruments for Flight 91.205
Changes for day and night
ATOMATOFLAMES Acronym day
FLAPS - Night
Read and Highlight the Regulation
MEMORIZE!

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ELT Requirements 91.207
Batteries to be replaced:
1 hour of cumulative use
50% of useful life
Does not apply:
Aircraf engaged in training if within 50 miles
Agricultural
Not carrying more than one person

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Inoperative Instruments 91.213
Does an MEL Exist?
May be without MEL if:
Non-turbine
Not part of ATOMATOFLAMES or FLAPS
Option 1: Remove from the Aircraf, adjust maintenance records
Option 2: Deactivate and placard inoperative
Both options require that PIC make safety determination
Final Option: Special Flight Permit
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References
Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
Federal Aviation Regulations

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