Manufacturing

Machining is the most important of the basic

manufacturing processes.

The vast majority of manufactured products require

machining at some stage in their production.

This may range from relatively rough or no

precision work like cleaning up of castings and
forgings to the high precision work involving very
close tolerances.

Even a broad observation around us indicates that

there is hardly any product that is not having any
cut surface
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
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 Material Removal Process
Classification of

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Why Machining is Important
Variety of work materials can be machined
Most frequently used to cut metals

Variety of part shapes and special geometric

features possible, such as:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Disadvantages with Machining
Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are
wasted material, at least in the unit
operation
Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes
more time to shape a given part than
alternative shaping processes, such as
casting or forming
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Machine Tools
Machine tools are the machines on which the metal
cutting or metal forming processes are carried out.

A machine tool is a machine but not all the

machines are machine tools.

A machine tool
Holds the work piece,
Holds the tool,
Moves the tool or work piece to impart the required
shape on the work piece
Supplies the energy required for metal cutting.
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Classification of Metal cutting Machine Tools
Degree of Specialization:

General purpose- Like Lathe, Shaper, milling etc.

Special Purpose-Like gear cutting machine.

Type of Surface Produced:

Cylindrical Surface- Like Lathe, drilling

Flat Surface Like Milling, shaper, planer etc.

Type of Motion:

Reciprocating Motion- Like shaper, planer and slotter.

Rotating motion
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Dr.Hemantha Lathe,
kumar, drilling
Asst.Professor,
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
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 Classification of Metal cutting Machine Tools
Degree of Automation:

Manual control machine- Like Lathe, drilling

Semiautomatic Machine-CNC Lathe, CNC milling

Automatics machine- Flexible Manufacturing System

(FMS.)

Duty cycle:

-Light duty machine tools

-Medium duty machine tools.

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-Heavy duty machine tools.
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
Classification of Metal cutting Machine Tools

Type of Energy used:

Conventional machine tools

Non-Conventional machine tools like Laser machine

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of
work material to form a chip
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

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A cross Dept. of Mechanical
sectional view ofEngg.
theNITKmachining process
 Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating
work piece to form a cylindrical shape

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Lathe

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Drilling

Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a

rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
Vertical Drilling Machine Radial Drilling Machine

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms
1. Peripheral milling
2. Face milling

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Milling Machine

Vertical Milling Machine Horizontal Milling Machine

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Other Machining Processes
Shaping and Planing
Broaching
Sawing

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Shaping and Planing
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Shaping Machine

Shaping Machine PlaningMachine

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Broach

Broaching Machine

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK Sawing Machine
 Grinding
Grinding is a material removal process
accomplished by abrasive particles that are contained in
a bonded grinding wheel rotated at very high speeds.
Regulating wheel

Centre type
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Grinding Machine

Universal Grinding Machine Center less Grinding Machine

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Cutting Tools

(a) A single point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b)
a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting
edges.

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Cutting Conditions in Machining

Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Cutting Conditions in Machining
Three dimensions of a machining process:
Cutting speed v primary motion
Feed f secondary motion
Depth of cut d penetration of tool below original work
surface

For certain operations, material removal rate can be

computed as

RMR = v f d
where v = cutting speed;
8/12/2017 f kumar,
Dr.Hemantha = feed; d = depth of cut
Asst.Professor, 23
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Orthogonal Cutting

Cutting edge is normal to the

work piece

Two dimensional cutting

No forces exist in the

direction perpendicular to
relative motion between tool
and work piece

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Oblique Cutting

Cutting edge is inclined

with the work piece at an
angle Inclination angle

Three dimensional cutting

Cutting forces in the three

mutually perpendicular
directions

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Orthogonal Cutting Model
As the tool is forced in to
the material, the chip is
formed by shear
deformation along a plane
called the Shear plane

Oriented at an angle
with work surface

Material fails only at the sharp cutting edge, results in

formation of chip
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Chip Thickness Ratio

to
r
tc

Shear plane angle

r cos
tan
1 r sin

where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the chip

prior to chip formation; tc = chip thickness after separation;
= rake angle
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Shear Strain in Chip Formation

Shear Strain Dr.Hemantha kumar, Asst.Professor,= tan( - ) + cot 28

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Mechanism of chip formation
In actual machining process,
1. Primary Shear:-Shear
deformation will not
occur along a plane, but
within a zone. Shear
zone is very thin, we can
assume it has a plane

2. Secondary shear:-Secondary shear results from tool

and chip, as the chip slides along the rake face of the
tool
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Forces acting on Chip

Forces applied by the tool against the chip:- Friction force F and
Normal force to friction N

Forces applied by the work piece on the chip:-Shear force Fs

and Normal force to shear Fn
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Forces Acting on Chip
Resultant Forces

Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'

Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:

R' must be equal to R in magnitude and opposite

in direction

R must be collinear with R

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F

N

Shear Stress

Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

Fs
S
As

t ow
where As = area of the shear plane As
sin

Shear
8/12/2017stress = shear strength
Dr.Hemantha ofAsst.Professor,
kumar, work material during cutting
32
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force

F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured

Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
Cutting force Fc
Thrust force Ft
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force

Equations can be derived to relate the forces that cannot

be measured to the forces that can be measured

F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
Problem No 3:- During an orthogonal machining operation on
mild steel, the results obtained are
T0=0.25 mm, tc = 0.75 mm , width (w)=2.5 mm, rake angle =0
degrees, Fc=950 N and FT=475 N
a) Determine the coefficient of friction between the tool and chip
b) Determine the ultimate shear stress of the work piece

F Fc sin FT cos 475

0.5
N Fc cos FT sin 950
If the shear plane area is As and the shear plane angle is ,

t0 w
As
sin
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 r cos 1
tan r
1 r sin 3
1
tan 18.40
1

3
t0 w
As 1.98mm 2
sin
We know that,
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = 751.3 N

Fs
Stress Shear 379.4 N / mm 2
As
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 The Merchant Equation
Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation
can occur, the work material will select a shear plane
angle that minimizes energy, given by

45
2 2
Derived by Eugene Merchant
Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to 3-
D machining
This is the angle at which shear stress is equals to the
shear strength of the material

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
Lessons based on Merchants equation

To increase shear plane angle

Increase the rake angle

Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of

friction)

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle

(a) Higher resulting in lower shear plane area

(b) Smaller Dr.Hemantha
8/12/2017
results kumar,
in larger shear plane area
Asst.Professor, 39
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Mechanism of chip formation

Types of Chip in Machining

1. Discontinuous chip

2. Continuous chip

3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)

4. Serrated chip
Discontinuous Chip

Brittle work materials

Low cutting speeds
Large feed and depth of cut
High tool chip friction

Continuous Chip

Ductile work materials

High cutting speeds
Small feeds and depths
Sharp cutting edge
Low tool chip friction
Continuous with BUE
Ductile materials
Low-to-medium cutting speeds
Tool-chip friction causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

Serrated Chip
Semicontinuous - saw-tooth appearance
Cyclical chip forms with alternating high
shear strain then low shear strain
Associated with difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting speeds
 Requirements of a cutting tool
The tool should be:
Hard and tough,
Strong,
Heat resistant to maintain the hardness at
high temperature (Hot hardness),
Wear resistant.

Thus tool material plays a very important role in

metal cutting.
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Hot Hardness

Typical hot hardness relationships for selected tool materials. Plain carbon steel
shows a rapid loss of hardness as temperature increases. High speed steel is
substantially better, while cemented carbides and ceramics are significantly
harder at elevated temperatures.
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Different Tool Materials
Tool steels.
High speed steels( HSS).
Carbides.
Abrasives.
Diamond.
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
Ceramics.

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
Trend in time of turning a w/p over last hundred years

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Tool steels
Carbon steels and low/medium alloy steels are called
as tool steels.

Plain carbon steels having 0.9 to 1.3% C when heat

treated have good hardness and strength along with
adequate toughness. Hence can be successfully used
as cutting tools.

However they have less hot hardness and hence

preferred in low speed machining.

Alloying elements like Cr,Ni,Mn,can be added to

improve such properties.
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 High Speed Steels( HSS)
Produced by alloying steel with significant amount of
constituents like W, Co, Mo, V and Cr.

They exhibit good Red hardness and are capable of

operating at double the cutting speed than the carbon
steel tools, hence named as HSS tools.

Based on percentage of alloying elements it is

classified into three types viz.
1. 18-4-1 HSS
2. 8-4-1 HSS
3. Cobalt based Dr.Hemantha
8/12/2017 HSS kumar, Asst.Professor, 48
Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 High Speed Steels( HSS)

18-4-1 HSS: 18% W, 4% Cr,1% V. Good hot

hardness. It is W based HSS.

8-4-1 HSS: 8% Mo, 4% Cr,1% V. Shows the

same properties like 18-4-1 HSS. It also has
excellent toughness.

Cobalt based HSS: 2-15% of cobalt. This

increases the hot hardness and tool can operate
at very high speed.

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Cemented Carbides
Class of hard tool material based on tungsten
carbide (WC) using powder metallurgy techniques with
cobalt (Co) as the binder

Two basic types:

1. Non-steel cutting grades

- only WC-Co

2. Steel cutting grades

- TiC and TaC added to WC-Co.

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
Cemented Carbides General Properties
High compressive strength but low-to-moderate tensile
strength
High hardness (90 to 95 HRA)
Good hot hardness
Good wear resistance
High thermal conductivity
High elastic modulus - 600 x 103 MPa (90 x 106 lb/in2)
Toughness lower than high speed steel
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Cermets
Combinations of TiC, TiN, and titanium carbonitride
(TiCN), with nickel and/or molybdenum as binders.
Applications: high speed finishing and semifinishing of
steels, stainless steels, and cast irons
Higher speeds and lower feeds than steel-cutting carbide
grades
Better finish achieved, often eliminating need for
grinding
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Coated Carbides
Cemented carbide insert coated with one or more thin layers of
wear resistant materials, such as TiC, TiN, and/orAl2O3
Coating applied by chemical vapor deposition or physical vapor
deposition
Coating thickness = 2.5 - 13 m (0.0001 to 0.0005 in)
Applications: cast irons and steels in turning and milling
operations
Best applied at high speeds where dynamic force and thermal
shock are minimal
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Coated Carbide Tool

Photomicrograph of
cross section of
multiple coatings on
cemented carbide
tool (photo courtesy
of Kennametal Inc.)

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Ceramics
Primarily fine-grained Al2O3, pressed and sintered at
high pressures and temperatures into insert form with
no binder
Applications: high speed turning of cast iron and steel
Not recommended for heavy interrupted cuts (e.g.
rough milling) due to low toughness
Al2O3 also widely used as an abrasive in grinding

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Synthetic Diamonds
Sintered polycrystalline diamond (SPD) - fabricated by
sintering very fine-grained diamond crystals under high
temperatures and pressures into desired shape with little
or no binder
Usually applied as coating (0.5 mm thick) on WC-Co
insert
Applications: high speed machining of nonferrous metals
and abrasive nonmetals such as fiberglass, graphite, and
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wood Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Cubic Boron Nitride
Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (cBN) is
hardest material known
Fabrication into cutting tool inserts same as SPD:
coatings on WC-Co inserts
Applications: machining steel and nickel-based
alloys
SPD and cBN tools are expensive

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Common Insert Shapes

Common insert shapes: (a) round, (b) square, (c) rhombus with
two 80 point angles, (d) hexagon with three 80 point
angles, (e) triangle (equilateral), (f) rhombus with two 55
point angles, (g) rhombus with two 35 point angles. Also
shown are typical features of the geometry.
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
A collection of metal cutting
inserts made of various
materials (photo courtesy of
Kennametal Inc.).

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Chip Breakers

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Three Modes of Tool Failure

Fracture failure
Cutting force becomes excessive and/or dynamic,
leading to brittle fracture
Temperature failure
Cutting temperature is too high for the tool
material
Gradual wear
Gradual wearing of the cutting tool

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Wear

Abrasion

Adhesion

Diffusion

Chemical reactions

Plastic deformation

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Tool Wear

1. Flank wear
Notch wear

Nose radius wear

2. Crater Wear

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Tool Wear

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Tool Life

Tool life can be defined as length of cutting

time that tool can be used

Three regions
1. Break in period

2. Steady state wear region

3. Failure region

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Tool Wear vs. Time

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Effect of Cutting Speed

Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for

three cutting speeds, using a tool life criterion of 0.50
mm flank wear. Dr.Hemantha
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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
67
 Tool Life vs. Cutting Speed

Natural log-log plot of cutting speed vs tool life.

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Taylor Tool Life Equation

Relationship is credited to F. W. Taylor

vT C n

where v = cutting speed; T = tool life; and n

and C are parameters that depend on feed,
depth of cut, work material, tooling material,
and the tool life criterion used
n is the slope of the plot
C is the intercept on the speed axis at one
minute tool life

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK
 Typical Values of n and C

Tool material n C (m/min) C (ft/min)

High speed steel:
Non-steel work 0.125 120 350
Steel work 0.125 70 200
Cemented carbide
Non-steel work 0.25 900 2700
Steel work 0.25 500 1500
Ceramic
Steel work 0.6 3000 10,000

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Dept. of Mechanical Engg. NITK