TKM CH 14

Chapter 14
The Cost of
Capital
Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Slide Contents
Learning Objectives
Principles Used in This Chapter
1. The Cost of Capital: An Overview
2. Determining the Firms Capital Structure
Weights
3. Estimating the Costs of Individual Sources of
Capital
4. Summing Up Calculating the Firms WACC
5. Estimating Project Cost of Capital
6. Floatation costs and Project NPV
Key Terms 14-2
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the concepts underlying the

firms overall cost of capital and the
purpose of its calculation.
2. Evaluate a firms capital structure, and
determine the relative importance
(weight) of each source of financing.
3. Calculate the after-tax cost of debt,
preferred stock, and common equity.

14-3
Learning Objectives (cont.)
4. Calculate a firms weighted average

cost of capital
5. Discuss the pros and cons of using
multiple, risk-adjusted discount rates.
Describe the divisional cost of capital
as a viable alternative for firms with
multiple divisions.
6. Adjust NPV for the costs of issuing new
securities when analyzing new
investment opportunities.
14-4
Principle #1: Money Has a Time Value.

Principle #3: Cash Flows Are the Source of
Value.
Estimates of investors required rate of return

extracted from observed market prices are
based on principles #1 and #3.

14-5
(cont.)
Principle #2: There Is a Risk-Return

Tradeoff.
Investors who purchase a firms common stock

require a higher expected return than investors
who loan money.

14-6
14.1 The Cost
of Capital:
An Overview

The Cost of Capital: An Overview
Cost of capital is the weighted average of

the required returns of the securities that
are used to finance the firm. We refer to
this as the firms Weighted Average Cost
of Capital, or WACC.

14-8
(cont.)
Most firms raise capital with a combination

of debt, equity, and hybrid securities.
WACC incorporates the required rates of

return of the firms lenders and investors
and the particular mix of financing sources
that the firm uses.

14-9
(cont.)
How does riskiness of firm affect WACC?
Required rate of return on securities will be

higher if the firm is riskier.
Risk will influence how the firm chooses to

finance i.e. proportion of debt and equity.

14-10
(cont.)
WACC is useful in a number of settings:

WACC is used to value the firm.
WACC is used as a starting point for
determining the discount rate for investment
projects the firm might undertake.
WACC is the appropriate rate to use when
evaluating performance, specifically whether
or not the firm has created value for its
shareholders.

14-11
WACC equation

14-12
14-13
Three Step Procedure for Estimating
Firm WACC
1. Define the firms capital structure by

determining the weight of each source of
capital. (see column 2, figure 14-2)
2. Estimate the opportunity cost of each
source of financing. We will use the
current market value of each source of
capital based on its current, not historical,
costs. (see column 3, figure 14-2)

14-14
Three Step Procedure for Estimating
Firm WACC (cont.)
3. Calculate a weighted average of the costs

of each source of financing. (see column
4, figure 14-2)

14-15
14-16
14.2 Determining
the Firms Capital
Structure Weights

Determining the Firms Capital
Structure Weights
The weights are based on the following

sources of capital: debt (short-term and
long-term), preferred stock and common
equity.
Liabilities such as accounts payable and

accrued expenses are not included in
capital structure.

14-18
Determining the Firms Capital
Structure Weights (cont.)
Ideally, the weights should be based on

observed market values. However, not all
market values may be readily available.
Hence, we generally use book values for
debt and market values for equity.

14-19
Checkpoint 14.1
Calculating the WACC for Templeton Extended Care
Facilities, Inc.
In the spring of 2010, Templeton was considering the acquisition of a chain of
extended care facilities and wanted to estimate its own WACC as a guide to
the cost of capital for the acquisition. Templetons capital structure consists of
the following:

14-20
Checkpoint 14.1
Calculating the WACC for Templeton Extended Care
Facilities, Inc. (Cont.)
Templeton contacted the firms investment banker to get estimates of the
firms current cost of financing and was told that if the firm were to borrow
the same amount of money today, it would have to pay lenders 8%; however,
given the firms 25% tax rate, the after-tax cost of borrowing would only be
6% 8%(1.25). Preferred stockholders currently demand a 10% rate of
return, and common stockholders demand 15%. Templetons CFO knew that
the WACC would be somewhere between 6% and 15% since the firms capital
structure is a blend of the three sources of capital whose costs are bounded
by this range.

14-21
Checkpoint 14.1

14-22
Checkpoint 14.1

14-23
Checkpoint 14.1

14-24
Checkpoint 14.1: Check Yourself
After completing her estimate of Templetons WACC, the CFO

decided to explore the possibility of adding more low-cost
debt to the capital structure. With the help of the firms
investment banker, the CFO learned that Templeton could
probably push its use of debt to 37.5% of the firms capital
structure by issuing more debt and retiring (purchasing) the
firms preferred shares. This could be done without
increasing the firms costs of borrowing or the required rate
of return demanded by the firms common stockholders.
What is your estimate of the WACC for Templeton under this
new capital structure proposal?

14-25
Step 1: Picture the Problem
16%
14%
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
Debt Prefered Stock Common Stock

14-26
Step 1: Picture the Problem (cont.)
Capital Structure Weights
37.5%
Debt
62.5%,
Common stock

14-27
Step 2: Decide on a Solution
Strategy
We need to determine the WACC based on

the given information:
Weight of debt = 37.5%; Cost of debt = 6%
Weight of common stock = 62.5%; Cost of

common stock =15%

14-28
Strategy (cont.)
We can compute the WACC based on the

following equation:

14-29
Step 3: Solve
The WACC is equal to 11.625% as

calculated below.
Weights Cost Product

Debt 0.375 0.06 0.0225
Common Stock 0.625 0.15 0.09375
Preferred Stock 0 0.1 0
1 WACC 0.11625

14-30
Step 4: Analyze
We observe that as Templeton chose to

increase the level of debt to 37.5% and
retire the preferred stock, the WACC
decreased marginally from 12.125% to
11.625%.
Thus altering the weights will change the

WACC.

14-31
14.3 Estimating
the Cost of
Individual
Sources of Capital

The Cost of Debt
The cost of debt is the rate of return the
firms lenders demand when they loan
money to the firm.
Note, the rate of return is not the same as
coupon rate, which is the rate contractually
set at the time of issue.
We can estimate the markets required rate
of return by examining the yield to
maturity on the firms debt.

14-33
The Cost of Debt (cont.)
After-tax cost of debt = Yield (1-tax rate)
Example 14.1 What will be the yield to

maturity on a debt that has par value of
$1,000, a coupon interest rate of 5%,
time to maturity of 10 years and is
currently trading at $900? What will be the
cost of debt if the tax rate is 30%?

14-34
Enter:
N = 10; PV = -900; PMT = 50; FV =1000
I/Y = 6.38%
After-tax cost of Debt = Yield (1-tax rate)

= 6.38 (1-.3)
= 4.47%

14-35
It is not easy to find the market price of a

specific bond as most bonds do not trade
in the public market.
Because of this, it is a standard practice to
estimate the cost of debt using yield to
maturity on a portfolio of bonds with
similar credit rating and maturity as the
firms outstanding debt.

14-36
14-37
14-38
The Cost of Preferred Equity
The cost of preferred equity is the rate of

return investors require of the firm when
they purchase its preferred stock. The
cost is not adjusted for taxes since
dividends are paid to preferred
stockholders out of after-tax income.

14-39
The Cost of Preferred Equity (cont.)

14-40
Example 14.2 Consider the preferred

shares of Relay Company that are trading
at $25 per share. What will be the cost of
preferred equity if these stocks have a par
value of $35 and pay annual dividend of
4%?

14-41
kps = $1.40 $25 = .056 or 5.6%

14-42
The Cost of Common Equity
The cost of common equity is the rate of

return investors expect to receive from
investing in firms stock. This return comes
in the form of cash distributions of
dividends and cash proceeds from the sale
of the stock.

14-43
The Cost of Common Equity (cont.)
Cost of common equity is harder to

estimate since common stockholders do
not have a contractually defined return
(similar to interest on bonds or dividends
on preferred stock). There are two
approaches to estimating the cost of
common equity:
Dividend growth model (introduced in chapter
10)
CAPM (introduced in chapter 8)

14-44
The Dividend Growth Model
Discounted Cash Flow Approach
Using this approach, we estimate the

expected stream of dividends as the
source of future estimated cash flows.
We use the estimated dividends and
current stock price to calculate the internal
rate of return on the stock investment.
This return is used as an estimate of cost
of equity.

14-45
14-46
Checkpoint 14.2
Estimating the Cost of Common Equity for Pearson plc
Using the Dividend Growth Model
Pearson plc (PSO) is an international media company that
operates three business groups: Pearson Education, the
Financial Times, and Penguin. In the spring of 2009, Pearsons
CFO called for an update of the firms cost of capital. The first
phase of the estimation focused on the firms cost of common
equity. How would the CFO determine the cost of the
companys equity, using the dividend growth model?

14-47
Checkpoint 14.2

14-48
Checkpoint 14.2

14-49
Prepare two additional estimates of

Pearsons cost of common equity using the
dividend growth model where you use
growth rates in dividends that are 25%
lower than the estimated 6.25% (i.e., for g
equal to 5% and 7.81%)

14-50
We are given the following:
Price of common stock (Pcs ) = $10.09

Growth rate of dividends (g) = 5% and 7.81%
Dividend (D0) = $0.47 per share
Cost of equity is given by dividend yield +

growth rate.

14-51
Dividend Yield Growth Cost of

=D1 P0 Rate (g) Equity (kcs )

14-52
Strategy
We can determine the cost of equity using

equation 14-3a

14-53
Step 3: Solve
At growth rate of 5%
kcs = {$0.47(1.05)/$10.09} + .05

= .0989 or 9.89%

14-54
Step 3: Solve (cont.)
At growth rate of 7.81%
kcs = {$0.47(1.0781)/$10.09} + .0781

= .1283 or 12.83 %

14-55
Step 4: Analyze
Pearsons cost of equity is estimated at

9.89% and 12.83% based on the different
assumptions for growth rate.
Thus growth rate is an important variable

in determining the cost of equity. However,
estimating the growth rate is not easy.

14-56
Estimating the Rate of Growth, g
The growth rate can be obtained from

various websites that post analysts
forecasts of growth rates.
We can also estimate the growth rate

using the historical data and computing
the arithmetic average or geometric
average.

14-57
Estimating the Rate of Growth, g
(cont.)

14-58
Pros and Cons of the Dividend
Growth Model Approach
While dividend growth model is easy to

use, it is severely dependent upon the
quality of growth rate estimates.
Furthermore, not all firms pay dividends.

14-59
The Capital Asset Pricing Model
CAPM was used in chapter 8 to determine

the expected or required rate of return for
risky investments.

14-60
The Capital Asset Pricing Model
(cont.)
Equation 14-4 illustrates that the expected

return on common stock is determined by
three key ingredients:
The risk-free rate of interest,
The beta or systematic risk of the common
stock returns, and
The market risk premium.

14-61
Advantages of the CAPM approach
1. The model is simple to understand and

use.
2. The model does not depend on dividends

or growth rate so it can be applied to
companies that do not currently pay
dividends or are not expected to
experience a constant rate of growth in
dividends.

14-62
Disadvantages of the CAPM
Approach
1. CAPM does not offer any guidance on the
appropriate choice for the risk-free rate.
Risk-free rate may vary widely depending
on the Treasury security chosen.
2. Estimates of beta can vary widely
depending upon the market index and
time period chosen.
3. Estimates of market risk premium will also
vary depending on the time period and
security chosen.
14-63
Checkpoint 14.3
Estimating the Cost of Common Equity for Pearson plc
using the CAPM
A review of current market conditions at the end of March 2009
reveals that the 10-year U.S. Treasury Bond yield that we will
use to measure the risk-free rate was 2.81%, the estimated
market risk premium is 6.5%, and the beta for Pearsons
common stock is 1.20.
Determine Pearsons cost of common equity using the CAPM, as
of March 2009.

14-64
Checkpoint 14.3

14-65
Checkpoint 14.3

14-66
Prepare two additional estimates of Pearsons cost

of common equity using the CAPM where you use
the most extreme values of each of the three
factors that drive the CAPM.

14-67
CAPM describes the relationship between

the expected rates of return on risky
assets in terms of their systematic risk. Its
value depends on:
The risk-free rate of interest,
stock returns, and
The market risk premium.

14-68
However, there can be wide variation in

the estimates for each one of these
variables.
Here we are given the following estimates:
The risk-free rate of interest (.03% or 3.73%)
stock returns (1 or 1.5)
The market risk premium (4% or 8%)

14-69
The cost of equity can be estimated using

the CAPM equation:

14-70
The cost of equity is given by Risk-free rate +
(Risk premium Beta) :
Risk-Free Risk Premium Cost of

Rate Equity
Beta

14-71
Strategy
Since we have been given the estimates

for market factors (risk-free rate and risk
premium) and firm-specific factor (beta),
we can determine the cost of equity using
CAPM.

14-72
Step 3: Solve
kcs = 0.03 + 1(4) = 4.03%
kcs = 3.73 + 1.5(8) = 15.73%

14-73
Step 4: Analyze
Pearsons cost of equity is shown to be

sensitive to the estimates used for risk-
free rate of interest, beta and market risk
premium.
Based on the estimates used, the cost of

common equity ranges from 4.03% to
15.73%.

14-74
14.4 Summing
Up Calculating
the Firms WACC

Summing Up Calculating the
Firms WACC
The final step is to calculate the firms

overall cost of capital by taking the
weighted average of the firms financing
mix that we evaluated in Steps One and
Two.

14-76
Summing Up Calculating the
Firms WACC (cont.)
When estimating the firms WACC,

following issues should be kept in mind:
Determine weights based on market value
rather than book value.
Use market based opportunity costs rather
than historical rates (such as coupon rates).
Use forward looking weights and opportunity
costs.

14-77
14.5 Estimating
Project Cost of
Capital

Estimating Project Cost of Capital
Should the firms WACC be used to

evaluate all new investments?
In theory, it is appropriate only if the risk of

the new project is equal to the overall risk of
the firm. This may generally not be the case
necessitating the need for a unique cost of
capital for each project.

14-79
Estimating Project Cost of Capital
(cont.)
However, a recent survey found that more

than 50% of the firms tend to use single,
company-wide discount rate to evaluate all
of their investment proposals.
There are advantages and costs associated

with estimating a unique discount rate for
each project.

14-80
The Rationale for Using Multiple
Discount Rates
Multiple discount rates is consistent with

finance theory that suggests that unique
discount rate will reflect the unique risk of
the investment.
Figure 14-6 illustrates the problems that

arise when a single discount rate is used to
evaluate investment projects with different
levels of risk.

14-81
14-82
Why Dont Firms Typically Use
Project Cost of Capital?
1. It may be difficult to trace the source of

financing for individual project since most
firms raise money in bulk for all the
projects.
2. It adds to the time and cost in getting

approval for new projects.

14-83
Estimating Divisional WACCs
If a firm undertakes investment with very

different risk characteristics, it will try to
estimate divisional WACCs.
The divisions are generally defined by

geographical regions (e.g., Asian region
versus European region) or industry.

14-84
Estimating Divisional WACCs (cont.)
Advantages of a divisional WACC:

The discount rate reflects the risk of projects
evaluated by different divisions.
It requires estimating only one cost of capital
estimate for the entire division (rather than
one for each project).
It limits managerial latitude and the attendant
influence costs.

14-85
Using Pure Play Firms to Estimate
Divisional WACCs
Here a firm with multiple divisions may

identify a comparable firm with only one
division (called a pure play firm).
The estimate of pure play firms cost of

capital can then be used as a proxy for
that particular divisions cost of capital.

14-86
Divisional WACC Estimation Issues
and Limitations
While divisional WACC is an improvement

over a single, company-wide WACC, it has
a number of limitations:
1. The sample of firms in a given industry may
include firms that are not good matches for
the firm or one of its divisions.
2. The division being analyzed may not have a
capital structure that is similar to the sample
of firms in the industry data.

14-87
Divisional WACC Estimation Issues
and Limitations (cont.)
3. The firms in the chosen industry that are
used to proxy for divisional risk may not be
good reflections of project risk.
4. Good comparison firms for a particular
division may be difficult to find.

14-88
14-89
14.6 Floatation
Costs and Project
NPV

WACC, Floatation Costs and Project
NPV
Floatation costs are costs incurred by a

firm when it raises money to finance new
investments by selling bonds and stocks.
For example, these costs may include fees

paid to an investment banker, and costs
incurred when securities are sold at a
discount to the current market price.

14-91
NPV (cont.)
Because of floatation costs, the firm will

have to raise more than the amount it
needs.

14-92
NPV (cont.)
Example 14.3 If a firm needs $100 million

to finance its new project and the
floatation cost is expected to be 5.5%,
how much should the firm raise by selling
securities?

14-93
NPV (cont.)
= $100 million (1-.055) = $105.82 million
Thus the firm will raise $105.82 million,

which includes floatation cost of $5.82
million.

14-94
Checkpoint 14.4
Incorporating Flotation Costs into the
Calculation of NPV
The Tricon Telecom Company is considering a $100 million
investment that would allow it to develop fiber optic high-speed
Internet connectivity to its 2 million subscribers. The investment will
be financed using the firms desired mix of debt and equity with 40%
debt financing and 60% common equity financing. The firms
investment banker advised the firms CFO that the issue costs
associated with debt would be 2% while the equity issue costs would
be 10%.
Tricon uses a 10% cost of capital to evaluate its telecom investments
and has estimated that the new fiber optic project will yield future
cash flows valued at $115 million. However, to this point no
consideration has been given to the effect of the costs of raising the
financing for the project or flotation costs. Should the firm go forward
with the investment in light of the flotation costs?

14-95
Checkpoint 14.4

14-96
Checkpoint 14.4

14-97
Checkpoint 14.4

14-98
Before Tricon could finalize the financing

for the new project, stock market
conditions changed such that new stock
became more expensive to issue. In fact,
floatation costs rose to 15% of new
equity issued and the cost of debt rose to
3%. Is the project still viable (assuming
the present value of future cash flows
remain unchanged)?

14-99
The NPV will be equal to the present value

of the future cash flows less the initial
outlay and floatation costs.
NPV
= PV(inflows) Initial outlay Floatation costs

14-100
PV of Cash INflows
Initial Outlay
NPV
Floatation costs

14-101
Strategy
We need to first estimate the average

floatation costs that Tricon will incur when
raising the funds. This can be done using
equation 14-5.

14-102
Strategy (cont.)
Next, the grossed-up investment outlay

can be estimated using equation 14-6 and
subtracted from the present value of the
expected future cash flows to determine
whether the project has a positive NPV.

14-103
Step 3: Solve
We can use equation 14-5 to estimate the

weighted average floatation cost as
follows:
= .40 .03 + .60 .15 = .102 or 10.2%

14-104
The grossed up initial outlay for $100 million
project can be estimated using equation 14-6:
= $100 million (1- 0.102) = $111.36 million

Thus, floatation costs is equal to $11.36 million.

14-105
NPV = $115 million - $111.36 million

= $3.64 million

14-106
Step 4: Analyze
The project is feasible even after

consideration of higher floatation costs as
the NPV is positive at $3.64 million.
However, the problem illustrates that

floatation costs can be significant and
cannot be ignored while evaluating
projects.

14-107
Key Terms
Cost of capital
Cost of debt
Cost of preferred equity
Cost of common equity
Divisional WACC
Floatation costs
Weighted Average Cost of Capital

14-108

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Chapter 14

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

1. Understand the concepts underlying the

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

4. Calculate a firms weighted average

Principle #1: Money Has a Time Value.

Estimates of investors required rate of return

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Principle #2: There Is a Risk-Return

Investors who purchase a firms common stock

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Cost of capital is the weighted average of

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Most firms raise capital with a combination

WACC incorporates the required rates of

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

How does riskiness of firm affect WACC?

Required rate of return on securities will be

Risk will influence how the firm chooses to

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

WACC is useful in a number of settings:

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

1. Define the firms capital structure by

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

3. Calculate a weighted average of the costs

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

The weights are based on the following

Liabilities such as accounts payable and

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Ideally, the weights should be based on

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

After completing her estimate of Templetons WACC, the CFO

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Capital Structure Weights

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

We need to determine the WACC based on

Weight of debt = 37.5%; Cost of debt = 6%

Weight of common stock = 62.5%; Cost of

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

We can compute the WACC based on the

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

The WACC is equal to 11.625% as

Weights Cost Product

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

We observe that as Templeton chose to

Thus altering the weights will change the

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

After-tax cost of debt = Yield (1-tax rate)

Example 14.1 What will be the yield to

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

After-tax cost of Debt = Yield (1-tax rate)

Copyright 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.