Homeostasis

Chapter 7
Zoology 1450
Topics
Osmoregulation
Endocrine regulation
Thermal regulation
Immune Response (briefly)
Part 1: Osmoregulatory
Systems in Fishes
Maintaining homeostasis with
respect to solute concentrations
and water content
Introduction
Maintaining steady-state equilibrium in the
internal environment of aquatic and marine
organisms is challenging.

Much is done involuntarily (hormones, enzymes,

osmoregulation, etc.) so little physical action is
required, however

Pick-up-and-move still an option!

(Poor environment.)
Definitions
Homeostasis = maintaining steady state
equilibrium in the internal environment of an
organisms
Solute homeostasis = maintaining equilibrium
with respect to solute (ionic and neutral solutes)
concentrations (i.e. salts)
Water homeostasis = maintaining equilibrium
with respect to the amount of water retained in
the body fluids and tissues
Definitions, continued
Osmotic concentration - Total
concentration of all solutes in an aqueous
solution.
Units
osmolals = 1 mole of solute/liter of water
milliosmolals = 1/1000th of one osmolal
Osmoregulation in different environments

Challenge to homeostasis depends on

Solute concentration of body fluids and

tissues
concentration of environmental solutes
marine: ~34 ppt salinity = 1000 mosm/l
freshwater: < 3 ppt salinity = 1 - 10 mosm/l
Osmoregulation in different environments

Each species has a range of environmental

osmotic conditions in which it can function:
stenohaline - tolerate a narrow range of
salinities in external environment
euryhaline - tolerate a wide range of salinities
in external environment
short term changes: estuarine - 10 - 32 ppt,
intertidal - 25 - 40
long term changes: diadromous fishes
(salmon)
Four osmoregulatory strategies in fishes

1. Isosmotic (nearly isoionic, osmoconformers)

2. Isosmotic with regulation of specific ions
3. Hyperosmotic (fresh H20 fish)
4. Hyposmotic (salt H2O fish)
Osmoregulation Strategies
Osmoconforming (no strategy) Hagfish internal salt
concentration = seawater. However, since they live IN the
ocean....no regulation required!
Osmoregulation Strategies
Elasmobranchs (sharks, skates, rays, chimeras)

Maintain internal salt concentration ~ 1/3 seawater,

make up the rest of internal salts by retaining high
concentrations of urea & trimethylamine oxide
(TMAO).

Bottom linetotal internal osmotic concentration

equal to seawater!

How is urea retained?

Gill membrane has low permeability to urea so it is
retained within the fish. Because internal inorganic
and organic salt concentrations mimic that of their
environment, passive water influx or efflux is
minimized.
Osmotic regulation by marine teleosts...

ionic conc. approx 1/3 of seawater

drink copiously to gain water
Chloride cells eliminate Na+ and Cl-
kidneys eliminate Mg++ and SO4=

advantages and disadvantages?

 Saltwater teleosts: active tran.
passive diff.

H2O

drink

Na+, Cl-

Na+, Cl- Na+, Cl- Mg++, SO4=

Mg++, SO4= chloride cells kidneys

 active
Chloride Cell fig 6.2: passive
sea water

pavement
PC accessory
cell Cl- Na+ PC
cell
Cl- Cl- Na+
Na+

Na+, Cl- +
carrier Na+ Na+
pump
Na+ K+ ATPase
Cl- K+
gut
chloride cell mitochondria
internal tubular system
Osmotic regulation by FW teleosts

Ionic conc. Approx 1/3 of seawater

Dont drink
Chloride cells fewer, work in reverse
Kidneys eliminate excess water; ion loss
Ammonia & bicarbonate ion exchange mechanisms

advantages and disadvantages?

 Freshwater teleosts: active
passive

H2O
dont
drink
Na+, Cl-

Na+, Cl- water

Ion exchange
pumps; beta chloride cells kidneys
Ion Exchange Mechanisms
freshwater interior
Na+
active
ATP
pump
NH4+ or H+

Cl-
active
ATP
pump
HCO3-

gill membrane
Freezing Resistance:
What fishes might face freezing?

hagfishes?
isotonic
marine elasmobranchs?
isotonic
freshwater teleosts?
hypertonic
marine teleosts?
hypotonic
 Solution for Antarctic fish
Macromolecular compounds
peptides (protein)
{ glycopeptides
(carbohydrate/protein)
rich in alanine
molecules adsorb (attach) to ice crystal surface

interfere with ice crystal growth (disrupt matrix)

Why is this important???
ice ruptures cells; hinders osmoregulation
 What about rapid ion flux?
Euryhaline
Short-term fluctuations in osmotic state of
environment, e.g. in intertidal zone or in
estuaries where salinity can range from 10
to 34 ppt with the daily tidal cycle:
these fish have both kinds of chloride cells
when salinity is low, operate more like FW fishes
when salinity is high, operate like marine fishes

kidneys function only under low salinity conditions

Euryhaline
Diadromous fishes (spend part of life in salt
water, part in freshwater catadromous
(migrate seaward) or anadromous (migrate
up river)
hormone-mediated changes associated
with metamorphosis - convert from FW
adaptations to SW or vice versa, depending
on direction of migration
What about stress??

Stressors (handling, sustained exercise such as

escape from predator pursuit) cause release of
adrenaline (epinephrine) - for mediating escape, etc.

Adrenaline causes diffusivity of gill epithelium to

increase, i.e. leaky cell membranes water & ions)

This accentuates the normal osmoregulatory

challenge for FW or marine fishes
How to reduce stress in stressed fishes?

Minimize the osmotic challenge by placing

fish in conditions that are isosmotic
add salt to freshwater, e.g. in transporting fish
or when exposing them to some other short-
term challenge
dilute saltwater for same situation with marine
species
Thermoregulation in Fishes
Temperature effects on fish
Temperature exhibits the greatest influence on
fishs lives!
Affects metabolism
Affects digestion
Signals reproductive maturation and behavior
Fish are conformers (well, sort of...)

Body temperature is that of the environment

(poikilothermic ectothermy)

Each species has particular range of

temperatures that they can tolerate and that
are optimal

Big difference!
Behavioral Thermoregulation in Fishes

Although fish are ectotherms, they can

alter their body temperature by moving to
habitats with optimal temperature
Hot Fishes
Some fish can maintain body temperature greater than
ambient - tunas, billfishes, relatives (nearly endothermic)

Tuna use retia (similar to rete mirable) in muscles to

conserve heat & exchange O2.

Also, red muscle is medial rather than distal

Billfishes have warm brains - heat organ from muscles

around eye
Practical application
Youre management decisions and actions
must account for fish responses to
temperature gradients and limitations
Endocrine Systems of Fishes
Pituitary Gland - Master Gland
Linked with hypothalamus of brain
Produces hormones that affect other
endocrine tissues - indirect influence
Produces hormones that affect non-
endocrine tissues directly
Pituitary Gland

Indirect influence
ACTH - adrenocorticotrophic
hormone
stimulates interrenal tissue production
of cortisol, stress response
TH - thyrotrophic hormone
stimulate thyroid production of thyroxin
(growth, metamorphosis-i.e. flounder)
GTH- gonadotrophic hormone
stimulates gonads to produce
androgens/estrogens
Pituitary Gland

Effects non-endocrine tissues directly

pigmentation - melanophore stimulating hormone (MSH)
affects long-term control of color

osmoregulation - prolactin, vasotocin

controls fresh/saltwater systems

growth somatotrophic hormone

stimulates > length, cell multiplication
Thyroid Gland

isolated follicles distributed in connective tissue

along ventral aorta
controls metabolic rate
affects metamorphosis, maturation
facilitates switch between fresh & salt water
Gonads
gamete and sex hormone production
controls gametes maturation
cause formation of secondary sex
characteristics: color, shape, behavior
in fish, several sex hormones also serve
as pheromones - e.g. goldfish males
respond to hormones released with
ovulation
Other endocrine tissues in fishes
chromaffin tissues-located near kidneys & heart
produce adrenaline/noradrenaline fight or flight

increases blood flow through gills, ventilation rate

interrenal (inside kidney) tissues

produce cortisol, cortisone - stress response
hormones (reduce inflamation)
Other endocrine tissues in fishes
pancreatic islets
produce insulin - controls glucose, glycogen
metabolism (glucagon production)

corpuscles of Stannius
produce stanniocalcin - controls Ca2+ uptake at gills
Immune System
Introduction
Obviously, the immune system is important in
homeostatic processes.

Immune systems of fish have two components:

non-specific and specific.

As we will see, both are involved in protecting

fish from visible as well as invisible disease
causing agents.
Non-specific immunity
Skin & Scalesspecific solid layers of protection
from pathological and chemical stressors.

Mucus secretiontraps microorganisms;

preventing entry into body cavity or circulation

Macrophages (phagcytes) and cytotoxic cells

part of the inflamatory response which destroy
pathogens within the body before they can do
harm.
 Specific Immune Response

More of an active response

where an invader is detected
and destroyed.

Primary organs: kidney,

thymus, spleen, intestine.

Antigensinvading
compounds which provoke an
immune response.

Source: Cancer Research Institute (2002) www.cancerresearch.org/immhow.html

Specific immune response: What if something does get in??

White blood cells called B lymphocyte cells (B cells) and

T lymphocyte cells (T cells)bind to foreign cells and
begin replication and attachement to antigens (sort of
markers for things to come...).

Occasionally, invader actually goes trough a

macrophage first...then B cell responds...

Once B cells replicate, antibodies are produced which

bind specifically to pathogens and tag them for
destruction (eating) by macrophages!
Looks like meats
back on the menu
boys!!!
Questions???