FLUID MECHANICS 1

322 ME
FOR MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
Density
Density of fluid
= m/V
Specific weight
Specific weight of a fluid,
Definition: weight of the fluid per unit volume
Arising from the existence of a gravitational force
The relationship and g can be found using the following:

Since = m/V
therefore = g (1.3)
Units: N/m3
Water = 9814 N/m3; Air = 12.07 N/m3
Typical values:
Specific gravity
The specific gravity (or relative density) can be defined in two ways:
Definition 1: A ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water at standard
temperature (4C) and atmospheric pressure, or
Definition 2: A ratio of the specific weight of a substance to the specific weight of
water at standard temperature (4C) and atmospheric pressure.

s s (1.4)
SG
w@ 4C w@ 4C
Unit: dimensionless.
 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
All fluids are compressible under the application of an external force and
when the force is removed they expand back to their original volume.
The compressibility of a fluid is expressed by its bulk modulus of elasticity,
K, which describes the variation of volume with change of pressure, i.e.
change in pressure
K
volumetric strain
Thus, if the pressure intensity of a volume of fluid, , is increased by dP
and the volume is changed by d, then
dP
K
d /
dP dp
K K
d d /
Typical values: Water = 2.05x109 N/m2; Oil = 1.62x109 N/m2
Measure of how pressure compresses the
volume/density
Units of the bulk modulus are N/m2 (Pa)
Large values of the bulk modulus indicate
incompressibility
Incompressibility indicates large pressures are needed
to compress the volume slightly
Most liquids are incompressible for most practical
engineering problems.
Ideal Gas Law: p RT

P is pressure, is the density, R is the gas constant, and T is Temperature

Isothermal Process (constant temperature):
p
cons tan t Kp

Isentropic Process (frictionless, no heat exchange):
p

cons tan t K P

is the ratio of specific heats, cp (constant pressure) to

cv (constant volume), and R = cp cv.

If we consider air under at the same conditions as water, we can show that air is 15,000
times more compressible than water. However, many engineering applications allow air to
be considered incompressible
A consequence of the compressibility of fluids is that small disturbances introduced at a point
propagate at a finite velocity. Pressure disturbances in the fluid propagate as sound, and their
velocity is known as the speed of sound or the acoustic velocity, c.

dp K
c or c
d
sentropic Process (frictionless, no heat exchange because):

p
c

Ideal Gas and Isentropic Process:
c RT

Speed of Sound in Air at 15 C 300 m/s

Speed of Sound in Water at 15 C 1450 m/s
If a fluid is truly incompressible, the speed of sound is infinite, however, all fluids compress
slightly.
Example: A jet aircraft flies at a speed of 250 m/s at an altitude of 10,700 m, where the temperature
is -54 C. Determine the ratio of the speed of the aircraft, V, to the speed of sound, c at the specified
altitude. Assume k = 1.40

Ideal Gas and Isentropic Process:

c RT
c 1.40 * (286.9 J / kgK ) * 219 K
c 296.6 m / s

V 250 m / s
Ratio 0.84
c 296.6 m / s

The above ratio is known as the Mach Number, Ma

For Ma < 1 Subsonic Flow
For Ma = 1 sonic Flow
For Ma > 1 Supersonic Flow
 Vapor Pressure
A liquid in a closed container is subjected to a partial vapor pressure in the
space above the liquid due to the escaping molecules from the surface;
It reaches a stage of equilibrium when this pressure reaches saturated vapor
pressure.
Since this depends upon molecular activity, which is a function of
temperature, the vapor pressure of a fluid also depends on its temperature
and increases with it.
If the pressure above a liquid reaches the vapor pressure of the liquid,
boiling occurs; for example if the pressure is reduced sufficiently boiling
may occur at room temperature.
 Engineering significance of vapor pressure
In a closed hydraulic system, Ex. in pipelines or pumps, water vaporizes rapidly in regions
where the pressure drops below the vapor pressure.
There will be local boiling and a cloud of vapor bubbles will form.
This phenomenon is known as cavitations, and can cause serious problems, since the flow
of fluid can sweep this cloud of bubbles on into an area of higher pressure where the
bubbles will collapse suddenly.
If this should occur in contact with a solid surface, very serious damage can result due to
the very large force with which the liquid hits the surface.
Cavitations can affect the performance of hydraulic machinery such as pumps, turbines and
propellers, and the impact of collapsing bubbles can cause local erosion of metal surface.
Cavitations in a closed hydraulic system can be avoided by maintaining the pressure above
the vapor pressure everywhere in the system.
 Surface Tension
Liquids possess the properties of cohesion and adhesion due to molecular attraction.
Due to the property of cohesion, liquids can resist small tensile forces at the interface between the liquid and
air, known as surface tension, .
Surface tension is the intensity of the molecular attraction per unit length along
any line in the surface
Surface tension is defined as force per unit length, and its unit is N/m.
The reason for the existence of this force arises from intermolecular attraction. In the body of the liquid
(Fig. 1.2a), a molecule is surrounded by other molecules and intermolecular forces are symmetrical and in
equilibrium.
At the surface of the liquid (Fig. 1.2b), a molecule has this force acting only through 180.
This imbalance forces means that the molecules at the surface tend to be drawn together, and they act rather
like a very thin membrane under tension.
This causes a slight deformation at the surface of the liquid (the meniscus effect).

Figure 1.2: Surface Tension

 Surface Tension: Liquid Drop
The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be calculated using a free-body diagram:
Real Fluid Drops Mathematical Model

R is the radius of the droplet, is the surface tension, Dp is the pressure

difference between the inside and outside pressure.
The force developed around the edge due to surface tension along the line:
F 2R
surface
Applied to Circumference

This force is balanced by the pressure difference Dp:

Applied to Area
Fpressure DpR 2
 Surface Tension: Liquid Drop
Now, equating the Surface Tension Force to the Pressure Force, we
can estimate Dp = pi pe:
2
Dp
R
This indicates that the internal pressure in the droplet is greater that the
external pressure since the right hand side is entirely positive.

Is the pressure inside a bubble of water greater or less than that of a

droplet of water?
4
Prove to yourself the following result: Dp
R
 Capillarity

The surface tension leads to the phenomenon known as capillarity

where a column of liquid in a tube is supported in the absence of an externally applied
pressure.
Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on
the relative magnitude of cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the
walls of the containing vessels.
Liquid rise in tubes if they wet a surface (adhesion > cohesion), such as water, and fall
in tubes that do not wet (cohesion > adhesion), such as mercury.
Capillarity is important when using tubes smaller than 10 mm (3/8 in.).
For tube larger than 12 mm (1/2 in.) capillarity effects are negligible.
 Surface Tension: Capillary Action
Capillary action in small tubes which involve a liquid-gas-solid interface is caused by
surface tension. The fluid is either drawn up the tube or pushed down.

Wetted Non-Wetted

Adhesion

Cohesion
Adhesion
Cohesion

Adhesion > Cohesion Cohesion > Adhesion

h is the height, R is the radius of the tube, q is the angle of contact.

The weight of the fluid is balanced with the vertical force caused by surface tension.
 Surface Tension: Capillary Action
Free Body Diagram for Capillary Action for a Wetted Surface:

Fsurface 2R cos q

W R 2 h
Equating the two and solving for h:
2 cos q
h
R
For clean glass in contact with water, q 0, and thus as R decreases, h
increases, giving a higher rise.

For a clean glass in contact with Mercury, q 130, and thus h is negative
or there is a push down of the fluid.
Viscosity
It is the property of a fluid which determines its resistance to a shearing stresses,
and it is due to a combined effects of molecular activity and of Cohesion forces
( interaction between molecules) and it is influenced by temperature.

da dL dL da dU
da dt
dU
y dt dy dU dt dy dy

dL Moving plate u=U+dU

t da t+dt
dy
dx Fluid
x
Fixed plate
u=0
 dU

dy
N / m2 N s
= Kg/m.s
dU / dy m / s / m m2
= shear stress
= viscosity of fluid
du/dy = shear rate, rate of strain or velocity gradient
Viscosity: Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian

Toothpaste
Latex
Paint

Corn
Starch

Newtonian Fluids are Linear Relationships between stress and

strain: Most common fluids are Newtonian.
Non-Newtonian Fluids are Non-Linear between stress and strain
Kinematic viscosity,
Definition: is the ratio of the viscosity to the density;
/
will be found to be important in cases in which significant viscous and gravitational
forces exist.
Units: m2/s
Typical values:
Water = 1.14x10-6 m2/s; Air = 1.46x10-5 m2/s;
Example 1.1

A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg. The reservoir has a volume of 0.917
m3. Compute the density, specific weight, and specific gravity of the oil.
Solution:

mass m 825
oil 900kg / m3
volume 0.917
weight mg
oil g 900 x 9.81 8829 N / m 3
volume
oil 900
SGoil 0.9
w 1000
Example 1.3

Water has a surface tension of 0.4 N/m. In a 3-mm diameter vertical tube, if the
liquid rises 6 mm above the liquid outside the tube, calculate the wetting angle.
Solution
Capillary rise due to surface tension is given by;

2 cos q
h
r
rh 9810x 0.0015x 0.006
cos q
2 2 x 0.4

q = 83.7