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2K6ME 701: METROLOGY AND

INSTRUMENTATION

ARUN GEORGE
GEC WYD
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METROLOGY
Science of measurement.
Process of obtaining a quantitative comparison between
a predefined standard and a mesurand.

standard

measurand Process of result

comparison
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Standards of measurement
Standard of measurement is prescribed and defined by a
legal or recognized agency.

A computer-generated image of the international prototype kilogram (the

inch ruler is for scale). The prototype is manufactured from a platinum
iridium alloy and is 39.17 mm in both diameter and height
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Categories.
Scientific metrology
establishment of units of measurement,
development of new measurement methods
Applied or industrial metrology
application of measurement to manufacturing and
other processes.
Legal metrology
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Significance of mechanical measurements

Provides fundamental basis for research and
development
Fundamental element of control process
To facilitate fair and accurate trade between countries
Accurate measurement of water, electricity etc. critical
for consumer protection
To avoid accidental deaths and injuries with measuring
devices such as radar guns and breathalyzers.
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Methods of measurements
Direct comparison
Comparing measurand with a standard directly.
Less accurate method

Indirect comparison
Make use of a transducing device
Measuring system converts the input into analogous
form, which it then processes and present it at the
ouput as a known function of input
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ELEMENTS OF GENERALIZED
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
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Primary sensing element

Called as sensor/ Transducer
Senses desired input (measurand) and provides
analogous output
Insensitive to every other possible input

Mechanical : spring-mass, elastic device

Hydraulic-pneumatic : Buoyant float, orifice
Optical : photoelectric cell
Electrical : Resistance, capacitance,
thermocouple
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variable conversion element

Sometimes, the output from the sensor is not suited to

the measurement system.
It may be necessary to convert this output signal to some
other suitable form while preserving the information
content of the original signal.
Use of Analogue /Digital converter
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Variable manipulation element

Variable manipulation means a change in
numerical value of the signal.
manipulate the signal presented to this element
while preserving the original nature of the
signal.
Example: voltage amplifier
This element could be either placed after the
variable conversion element or it may precede.
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Transmission element
Elements of an instrument can be physically
separated.
Example: satellite, Aeroplanes.
Necessary to transmit data from one element to
another
The signal conditioning and transmission stage
is commonly known as Intermediate Stage.
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Data presentation element

convey the information about measurand to the
personnel handling the instrument or the system
for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes.
must be in a convenient form.
In case data is to be monitored, visual display
devices are needed.
In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like
magnetic tapes, storage type C.R.T., printers,
analogue and digital computers may be used.
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Functional Elements of a Clinical

Thermometer
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Functional Elements of a Clinical

Thermometer
The thermometer bulb containing mercury acts as the
primary sensing element as well as a variable conversion
element.
As the mercury expands it move through the capillary
tube in the thermometer stem- Data manipulation
element
The final data presentation stage consists of the scale on
the thermometer stem. It is calibrated to give the
indication of the temperature signal applied to the
thermometer bulb.
A restriction bend is provided does not allow the back
flow of mercury-the data storage element
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Functional Elements of a Bourdon

Pressure Gauge
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Functional Elements of a Bourdon

Pressure Gauge
Bourdon tube acts as the primary sensing element and a
variable conversion element
mechanical linkage acts as a data transmission element
The gearing arrangement amplifies the small
displacement and makes the pointer to rotate through a
large angle -data manipulation element
The dial scale on the gauge body plays the function of
data presentation element.
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Performance characteristics of
instruments
To choose the instrument, most suited to a particular
measurement application, we have to know the system
characteristics

Performance of an instrument can be discussed under

Static characteristics
Involved in measurement of quantities that are either
constant or slowly varying with time.
Dynamic characteristics
the relationship between the system input and output
when the measured quantity (measurand) is varying
rapidly
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Static calibration
In general calibration is defined as process in which
the measurand is compared with known standard.
Steps for calibration:
1. Identify all the possible inputs of the instrument.
2. Decide which of the inputs will be significant in
your application.
3. Determine the apparatus and methods to control
(vary or maintain constant) all significant inputs
over the desired range.
4. By varying one input and holding the other inputs
constant, develop the sensor input-output relations.
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Calibration curve

Dynamic range - the dynamic range Saturation region

difference between the
smallest and largest
physical inputs that can
reliably be measured by an
instrument
Saturation - increasing the
physical input value to the
level where there is no
change in output signal
Example: Pressure Gauge/sensor
The objective in this example is to determine the
relationship between the desired input (pressure) and the
output (scale reading). The first step of the calibration
process requires identifying the desired, interfering and
modifying inputs of the pressure gauge.
In the second step you must determine how, or in what
conditions, you are going to use the sensor.
all the inputs of the pressure gauge, except the fluid
pressure, are kept constant. The fluid pressure (true
value) must be varied with another instrument, in
increments, over some range, causing the measured value
also to vary:
 Static Sensitivity
Static sensitivity of instrument is defined as the
slope of the calibration curve

Reciprocal of static sensitivity is called deflection

factor or inverse sensitivity.
Deflection Factor = 1/ K
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Input quantity
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Linearity
If the relationship between output and input can
be expressed by an equation
Y=A+KX
Where A and K are constants, the instrument is said
to posses linearity.

Independent linearity
Propotional linearity
 SPAN
The range of variable that an instrument is
designed to measure is sometimes called scale of
instrument.

If X max and X min are the highest and lowest

limit of calibration then X max - X min is called as
the span of the instrument.

In the case of a thermometer, its scale goes from

40C to 100C. Thus its span is 140C
 THRESHOLD
If the instrument input is very gradually
increased from zero there will be some minimum
value below which no output change can be
observed or detected .
This minimum value defines threshold of the
instrument.
 RESOLUTION
The smallest change in input reading that can be
traced accurately.

Given in the form % of full scale (% fs).

 DRIFT
When the process of measurement takes
place there are some changes taking place in
the environment such as changes in the
temperature ,pressure etc .

Such environmental changes affect the

output of an instrument and this is termed as
drift.
 TYPES OF DRIFT
Drift is classified mainly into 3 types:
1. Zero drift 2. Sensitivity drift

3. Zonal drift