Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(BFC 21303)
Dr Mohd Firdaus Md Dan @ Azlan
No. 1, Level1, Akademia 3, FKAAS.
Hp:016-7137974
Department of Infrastructure and Geomatic Engineering
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Tun Hussein Onn University Of Malaysia
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Syllabus:
1. INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
2. MINERALS
3. THE STUDY OF ROCKS IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND
METAMORPHIC
4. WEATHERING
5. GEOLOGIC AGENTS
6. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
7. GEOLOGICAL SITE INVESTIGATION &
GEOPHYSICS
8. ROCK TESTING
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9. ROCK MASS
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
TO GEOLOGY
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INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
Geology the study of the planet earth, its
origin, history, composition, structure and
dynamics of how it changes.
Answers
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Engineering geology input:
a) In the planning stage, where the geological
data are required in order to model the ground
sub-surfaces and etc.
b) During construction.
c) Maintenance
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Examples of engineering works that required
geological input:
Rock slope
Tunnel
Dam
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The origin of the Earth
Big Bang Theory (Evidence):
Begin:
The End:
1. The end of the world was explaining in the Quran 21:104 (the
day when We shall roll up the heaven like a scrolled up for
books, as We began the first creation, We shall repeat it, a
promise binding upon Us, Truly, We shall do it)
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Earth
Trivia:
Shape - spherical
Polar radius - 21 km shorter than equatorial
radius
Average radius - 6378 km (3965 miles)
Surface Area - 510 x 106 km2 (29% is land)
Overall Density - 5500 kg/m3
Mount Everest is 8.8 km above sea level
Ocean floor is an average 3.7 km below sea
level
Average height above sea level is 7 km
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Principal Division of Earth
Consist of three:-
2) Hydrosphere
3) Lithosphere
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(1) Atmosphere:
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(2) Hydrosphere:
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Major Structural Units of Earth
b) composition
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Internal layers of the Earth based on Physical Properties
Lithosphere 1. About 100 km thick. The material is solid, strong and rigid,
which contains the continental crust and the uppermost part of
(rock sphere)
the mantle.
Asthenosphere 1. A major zone within the upper mantle where the temperature
and pressure are caused the rock melts.
(weak sphere) 2. The rocks become plastic and easily deformed. The
thickness is about 550 km.
1. The rock is stronger and more rigid than the asthenosphere
because the high pressure at this depth offsets the effect of
Mesosphere high temperature.
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Layers of the earth based on composition
1. There are two kinds of earth crust which is classified according to types of rocks,
thickness and density.
(a) Continent Crust: 35 - 60 km thick
relatively low density
Outer granitic rock
average density: 2.8 g/cm3
Crust (b) Oceanic Crust : thickness rarely exceed 5 km
denser material
basaltic composition
average density: 2.9 g/cm3
1. The depth up to 2900 km from surface and constitute 82% of earth volume and
68% of mass.
Mantle 2. The mantle is composed of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon
(Si), and oxygen (O) silicate compounds. The upper mantle contained of melt
substance called as a magma.
3. Magma can be forced through the earths crust to form volcano and known as a
lava. Average density: 4.5 g/cm3
1. The thickness is about 2200 km, composed of iron and nickel, hot and in the
Outer core liquid state. Average density: 10.7 g/cm3
1. The thickness' is about 1300 km, composed of iron and nickel, 5000C and 300
Inner core GPa. This is 3 million times the air pressure on you at sea level. Average density:
17.0 g/cm3.
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1. Basaltic rocks of the ocean plates are much denser and heavier than the granitic
rock of the continental plates.
2. The layer below the lithosphere is called the Asthenosphere (zone of asphalt-like
consistency) and moves the plates of the Earth.
3. The asthenosphere is the part of the mantle that flows and This difference in
temperature causes CONVECTION CURRENTS to form. This type of current forms when
hot things rise and cooler things sink.
4. These convection currents tumble throughout the mantle.
5. They cause the Lithosphere plates floating on the mantle to move around
6. The mantle is approximately 2900 kilometers thick, making it Earth's largest layer.
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Geologic Processes that Change the Earth's Structure
Geologic forces come form the processes of
gradation, tectonism and volcanism.
(a) Gradation:-
(50:7: the earth, We have spread it out, and set thereon mountains standing firm, and
have produced therein every kind of lovely growth plants)
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(b) Tectonism
(27:88: You see the mountains and think them solid, but they shall pass away as the passing
away of the clouds. The work of Allah, Who perfected all things, verily! He is aware of what you
do)
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Major plates of the lithosphere
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This massive slabs of solid rock can float despite their
tremendous weight because Continental crust is
composed of granitic rocks which are made up of
relatively lightweight minerals such as quartz and
feldspar.
Pacific plate
Eurasia plate
Antarctic plate
North America plate
South America plate
Indian plate
Africa plate
20 other small plates in between
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The theory of tectonics plate
The theory of plate tectonics
states that the lithosphere is
fragmented into a dozen or more
large and small plates that are
moving relative to one another.
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The present is the key to the past, the geologic forces and
processes - gradual as well as catastrophic - acting on the
Earth today are the same as those that have acted in the
geologic past.
PERMIAN TRIASSIC
225 MILLION 200 MILLION
YEARS AGO YEARS AGO
JURASSIC CRETACEOUS
135 MILLION 65 MILLION
YEARS AGO YEARS AGO
PRESENT DAY
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Contd
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As noted by Snider-Pellegrini and Wegener, the locations of certain fossil plants
and animals on present-day, widely separated continents would form definite
patterns (shown by the bands of colors), if the continents are rejoined
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Developing the plate tectonics theory
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The ruggedness and youth of the ocean floor
Ocean floor mapping shows the ruggedness and youth
of the ocean floor.
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Seafloor spreading and recycling of oceanic crust
Why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean
floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than
continental rocks?
At or near the crest of the ridge, the rocks are very young,
and they become progressively older away from the ridge
crest.
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Understanding Plate Motions
There are four types of plate boundaries:
Oceanic-continental convergence
Oceanic-oceanic convergence
Continental - continental convergence 43
(3) Transform boundaries
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Divergent boundaries
Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers
where plates are moving apart and new crust is created
by magma pushing up from the mantle.
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Convergent boundaries
The Earth's unchanging size implies that the crust
must be destroyed at about the same rate as it is
being created.
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Oceanic - continental convergence
Oceanic-continental convergence also sustains many of the
Earth's active volcanoes, such as those in the Andes and the
Cascade Range in the Pacific Northwest.
Oceanic continental
convergence
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Volcanic arcs and oceanic trenches partly encircling the Pacific Basin form the so-
called Ring of Fire, a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
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Oceanic - oceanic convergence
The Marianas Trench (paralleling the Mariana Islands), the best example, marks where the fast-
moving Pacific Plate converges against the slower moving Philippine Plate.
Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a
submarine volcano rises above sea level to form an island volcano.
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Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs.
Continental - continental convergence
Continental continental
convergence
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Plate-boundary zones
Not all plate boundaries are as simple as the
main types discussed above.
The time span of the earth is called eras and subdivided into
periods.
Rocks which are created during that particular period for example
Cambrian are said to belong to the Cambrian system.
For example rocks from the Precambrian era are known to be very
hard, crystalline materials but often with many fractures and
microstructures, whereas sandstone formed from Pliocene
series tends to be porous as soil and easily excavated without
blasting. 57
GEOLOGIC TIME
Era Period Absolute (million years
Cenozoic Holocene 0.012
Pleistocene 2
Tertiary Pilocene 7
Milocene 26
Oligocene 38
Eocene 54
Palaeocene 65