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WCDMA Air

Interface

Prepared by: Nirmal


Covered Topics

Spreading
WCDMA Channels
Physical layer functions
Spreading

Spreading means increasing the bandwidth of the signal.

Bandwidth is a scarce and expensive resource.

Good interference resistance of a wideband signal.

It is also difficult to jam because its energy is spread over so wide a


spectrum that it is very difficult to locate.
The low-energy-density property also means that emissions from the
transmitter are very low.
The spreading procedure in the UTRAN consists of two separate
operations: channelization and scrambling.
Channelization Codes
Channelization uses orthogonal codes and scrambling uses
pseudorandom codes or pseudo noise PN codes. Channelization
occurs before scrambling in the transmitter both in the uplink and the
downlink

The same code is always used for both the spreading and
despreading of a signal.
Spreading process is actually an XOR operation with the data
stream and the spreading code. Two successive XOR operations
will produce the original data.
Orthogonal Codes

Channelization transforms each data symbol into multiple chips.


This ratio (number of chips/symbol) is called the spreading factor
(SF). Thus, it is this procedure that actually expands the signal
bandwidth.
Data symbols on the I andQ branches are combined with the
channelization code.
Channelization codes are orthogonal codes (more precisely,
orthogonal variable spreading factor [OVSF] codes), meaning
that in an ideal environment they dont interfere with each
other.
Orthogonality requires that the codes be time synchronized.
Therefore, it can be used in the downlink to separate different users
within one cell, but in the uplink only to separate the different
services of one user. It cannot be used to separate different uplink
users in a base station, as all mobiles are unsynchronized in time;
thus, their codes cannot be orthogonal (unless the system in
question employs the TDD mode with uplink synchronization).
The orthogonal codes must be reused in every cell, and therefore it
is quite possible that a UE in the cell boundary area receives the
same orthogonal signal from two base stations, each directing their
identical orthogonal codes to two different UEs.

If only orthogonal spreading codes are used, these signals would


interfere with each other very severely.

In the uplink the transmissions from one user are, of course, time
synchronous; thus, orthogonal codes can be used to separate the
different channels of a user.

The UTRAN employs the spreading factors 4 through 512 in


downlink, where 4 to 256 appear in uplink
PN Codes

The orthogonal codes alone cannot handle the


spreading function in the UTRAN air interface. They can
only be used when the signals applying them are time
synchronous.
The downlink signals are only orthogonal within one
base station. But even in this case, orthogonality is
partially lost with channel distortions.
The base stations orthogonality decreases as we move
out toward to the mobiles. Therefore, something else is
needed to solve these problems, the system employs
pseudorandom codes.
They are used in the second part of the spreading
procedure, which is called the scrambling stage.
A spreading code identifies the specific UE
to the base station.
Time-synchronization and orthogonal
signals would reduce the interference in
the uplink direction because fully
orthogonal signals do not cause any
interference with each other.
In the downlink direction, pseudorandom
scrambling codes are used to reduce the inter-
base-station interference.
Each Node B has only one primary scrambling
code, and UEs can use this information to
separate base stations.
There are 512 different primary scrambling
codes possible in the downlink. This number
should be enough for the cell planning purposes.
A bigger number would cause problems with the
cell search procedure
The primary scrambling codes are divided
into 64 code groups, each consisting of 8
codes.
Dividing the 512 possible primary
scrambling codes into only 64 small
groups of codes can speed up the
synchronization procedure.
Synchronization Codes

There are two types of synchronization


codes, primary and secondary.
Primary codes are used by the primary
synchronization channels (P-SCH),
and secondary codes by the secondary
synchronization channels (S-SCH).
The primary synchronization code is
identical in all cells.
This is a useful property, as it can be used
for downlink time slot synchronization in
the UEs cell-search phase.
This fixed sequence of bits is sent only
during the first 256 chips of each slot
(there are 2,560 chips in the whole time
slot).
There is an exception to the general rule in
the downlink direction that all physical
channels are first combined with a
channelization code and then with a
scrambling code.
Synchronization channels (both primary
and secondary) are not subjected to either
of these. Instead, they are combined with
synchronization codes.
There are 16 different secondary synchronization codes.
These are sent via the S-SCHs, but only during the first
256 chips of each time slot.

These codes are fixed and known to all UEs.

The base station will change the transmitted code from


slot to slot.

There are thus 64 different secondary-synchronization-


code transmit sequences. The UE can determine which
of the 64 apply to a particular base station by reading all
of the secondary synchronization codes that appear in a
10-ms radio frame.
WCDMA layered Architecture

Following the OSI protocol model, radio interface protocols in the


UTRAN system can be described by using a layered three-level
protocol model.
The lowest layer in this interface is the physical layer.
Layer 2 consists of the medium access control (MAC), the radio link
control (RLC), the broadcast multicast control (BMC), and the
Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) sublayers.
Layer 3 includes the following sublayers: RRC, mobility
management (MM), GPRS mobility management (GMM), call control
(CC), supplementary services (SS), short message service (SMS),
session management (SM), and GPRS short message service
support (GSMS).
The UTRAN can operate in two modes, FDD
and TDD, and these modes set slightly different
requirements for layer 1 functionality.
In the FDD mode, the uplink and downlink
transmissions use different frequency bands.
In the TDD mode, the uplink and downlink
transmissions are on the same frequency but in
different time slots.
The chip rate in the standard UTRAN air
interface is 3.84 Mcps.
One 10-ms radio frame is divided into 15 slots,
which makes 2,560 chips per slot.
This means that one time slot could transfer
2,560 symbols. here we are using the term
symbol instead of bit. it is possible to transfer
more than one bit of data within one chip if
higher-order modulation schemes are employed.
Channel
Physical Layer

The physical layer is the lowest layer in


the WCDMA air interface protocol model.
It has to handle slightly different tasks
depending on whether it is in the UE or in
Node B.
The physical layer has logical interfaces to
both the MAC and RRC sub layers.
Channel Coding

Error correction coding is also known as channel


coding.
The idea is to add redundancy to the transmitted
bit stream, such that occasional bit errors can be
corrected in the receiving entity.
Forward error correction (FEC) schemes aim to
reduce transmission errors. The UTRAN
employs two FEC schemes: convolutional codes
and turbo codes. Convolutional coding can be
used for low data rates, and turbo coding for
higher rates.
The code rate indicates the ratio between
the number of input bits and the number of
output bits of the channel coding function.
In convolutional and turbo coding, it is
typically either 1/2 or 1/3; twice as many
bits or three times as many bits
respectively emerge from the channel
coder as enter it.
Error Detection on Transport Channels

In the UTRAN the channel coding is combined with the CRC error detection
function to form a hybrid ARQ scheme.
This means that the channel coding aims to fix as many errors as possible,
and then the error-detection function checks whether the result was correct.
Erroneous packets are detected and indicated to higher layers for
retransmission.
The retransmission of missing or corrupted packets belongs to RLC layer
functionality. The purpose of error detection is to find out whether a received
block of data was recovered correctly. This is done on transport blocks
using a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) method.
There are five CRC polynomial lengths in use (0, 8, 12, 16, and 24 bits), and
higher layers will indicate which one should be used for a given transport
channel.
The sending entity calculates the CRC checksum over the whole message
and attaches it to the end of the message. The receiving entity checks
whether the CRC of the received message matches with the received CRC.
An erroneous CRC result must be indicated to layer 2 (L2).
Radio Measurements and Indications to
Higher Layers

Radio measurements are typically controlled by the RRC


layer in the UE.
Possible measurement types for the UE physical layer
include:
Received signal code power (RSCP);
Received signal strength indicator (RSSI);
Received energy per chip divided by the power density
in the band (Ec/No);
Block error rate (BLER);
UE transmitted power;
UE Rx-Tx time difference;
Observed time difference to GSM cell;
the measurement types for the UTRAN include:
Received total wide band power;
Signal-to-interference ratio (SIR);
SIR error;
Transmitted carrier power;
Transmitted code power;
Bit error rate (BER);
Round-trip time (RTT);
The purpose of the measurements is rather
different in idle and in connected modes.
In idle mode the purpose of the measurements
is to help the UE in the cell-reselection process
to make sure that it is camped on the best
available cell.
In the dedicated state (CELL_DCH) the
measurements are typically done to help the
UTRAN maintain the optimal radio connection.
The radio resource protocol states were
generally divided into two groups:
the idle and
the connected states.
In the idle state no dedicated radio resources
existed between the UE and the base station.
The connected mode is divided into three states.
In the connected state there exists a logical RRC
level connection between the UE and the
UTRAN, but not necessarily a dedicated
physical connection.
1. CELL_DCH

is a state in which a dedicated connection


exists in both directions.
This state is entered while an RRC
connection is established with dedicated
channels, and it is abandoned when the
connection is released.
2. 2.CELL_FACH
CELL_FACH

is a state in which there are no dedicated connections, but data can


still be transferred via common channels.
This feature is very useful if the amount of data transferred is small
or it is bursty. The use of a common channel preserves the radio
resources in the cell.
In the uplink direction, small data packets and control signals can be
sent on a RACH or on a CPCH. In the downlink direction, the FACH
can be used.
The amount of data transmitted is monitored, and if necessary,
dedicated resources can be allocated followed by a state change to
the CELL_DCH state. Because the CELL_FACH state requires the
mobile to monitor the FACH channel, it consumes power, which is a
scarce resource in handheld equipment. Therefore, if there is no
data-transmission activity for a certain time, the RRC moves from
the CELL_FACH state to the CELL_PCH state.
3. CELL_PCH

state is much like the idle mode because only the PICH is monitored
regularly. The broadcast data (i.e., the system information and cell
broadcast messages) are also received. The difference is that the
RRC connection still exists logically in the CELL_ PCH state. The
RRC moves back to the CELL_FACH state if any uplink access is
initiated, or if a paging message is received.
Note that in order for the RRC to move from the CELL_PCH to the
idle mode, it must first go to the CELL_FACH state so that
connection release messages can be exchanged. If the UE makes a
cell reselection while in the CELL_PCH state, it must inform the
UTRAN about this. This also requires a temporary cell change to the
CELL_FACH state. No uplink activity is possible in the CELL_PCH
state itself.
If the internal RRC state happens to be,
for instance, CELL_PCH, then RRC will
move to CELL_FACH state and send the
data via common channels or set up a
dedicated connection.
Macrodiversity Distribution/Combining and
Soft HandoverExecution

Diversity is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as the state of


being varied.
The following forms of diversity are available in the FDD mode:
time diversity,
multipath diversity,
macrodiversity, and
antenna diversity.
Even though it may sound strange, diversity is quite often a desired
property in a CDMA system, and some forms of it may be generated
artificially to the signal.
Time Diversity

Time diversity means that the signal is spread in the time domain. If
there is a short period of time in which signals interfere with each
other, which distorts part of the signal, time diversity may help to
reconstruct the signal in the receiver despite the errors.

The methods for achieving time diversity are


channel coding,
interleaving, and
retransmission protocols.
Multipath Diversity
Multipath diversity is a phenomenon that happens when a signal arrives at
the receiver via different paths (i.e., because of reflections). There is only
one transmitter, but various obstacles in the signal path cause different
versions of the signal to arrive at the receiver from different directions and
possibly at different times.

In second-generation GSM systems too much multipath diversity means


trouble, as GSM receivers are not able to combine the different
components, but typically they just have to use the strongest component.

In a WCDMA system the receiver is typically able to track and receive


several multipath components and combine them into a composite signal.

The receiver is usually of the RAKE variety, which is well suited to the task.
The more energy that can be collected from the multipath components, the
better will be the signal estimation.
Macrodiversity
In a CDMA system the same signal can be transmitted over the air
interface,on the same frequency, from several base stations separated by
considerable distances. This scheme is called the soft handover (SHO). In a
SHO all the participating base stations use the same frequency, and the
result is a macrodiversity situation. Note the difference in these concepts: a
SHO is a procedure.Once it is performed, the result is a macrodiversity
situation.
In macrodiversity the mobiles transmission is received by at least two base
stations, and similarly the downlink signal is sent by at least two base
stations. The gain from macrodiversity is highest when the path losses of
the SHO branches are about equal.
Macrodiversity also provides protection against shadowing. In SHO the UE
has at least one other path that can maintain the service if one radio link
suffers from shadowing.
Macrodiversity components will be combined in the physical layer, and not
in the protocol stack. The most suitable place to perform this is in the mobile
stations RAKE receiver, as this provides the largest gain.
Antenna Diversity
Antenna diversity means that the same signal is either transmitted or
received (or both) via more than one antenna element in the same base
station.
Transmission and receiver antenna diversities are not the same.
Antenna diversity in mobile terminals is problematic: it is expensive and
tends to increase the size of mobiles beyond what the market will accept.
Multiplexing of Transport Channels and
Demultiplexing ofCCTrCHs
The MAC layer generates a new transport block every 10 ms (or a multiple
of that), fills it with the necessary information, and sends it to the physical
layer. The CRC is added to the transport block by the physical layer. It is
possible to send several transport blocks via the same transport channel
within one frame in parallel.
A set of simultaneous transport blocks is called the transport block set.
The transmission time interval (TTI) is defined as the inter-arrival time of
transport block sets. This is always a multiple of an L1 radio frame duration,
the exact value being either 10, 20, 40, or 80 ms
The size of the individual data chunk is determined by the transport block
size and the transport block set size parameters. The higher the block in the
figure, the higher the data rate.
TTI indicates how often the transport channel data rate can be modified.
With 10 ms TTI, the rate can be modified every 10 ms; with an 80-ms
setting the modification can be done only every 80 ms.
Transport Format

The transport format defines the data in a


transport block set and how it should be
handled by the physical layer.
In effect the transport format defines the
characteristics of a transport channel.
The transport format consists of two parts,
semistatic and dynamic.
Several transport channels can exist
simultaneously, each of them having different
transport characteristics.
These transport channels are multiplexed
together in layer 1, and the composite is called
the coded composite transport channel
(CCTrCH).
The collection of transport formats used in a
CCTrCH is called the transport format
combination. This combination can be different
for each 10-ms frame.
Rate Matching

The number of bits on a transport channel


can vary with every transmission time
interval.
The physical channel radio frames must
be completely filled.
This means that some sort of adjusting
must be done to match the two given
rates.
Puncturing
Padding
Discontinuous transmission (DTX) mode
In the downlink, the network can interrupt the
transmission if the number of bits to be sent is lower than
the maximum available. This is called the discontinuous
transmission (DTX) mode, and it is done to reduce the
overall interference in the radio path.
Rate matching is needed in the downlink to determine
how many DTX bits need to be transmitted.
This is done by calculating the possible peak data rate
and comparing it with the offered data rate.
Inner loop power control
Power control comes in two forms, open- and closed-loop control.
The basic difference between these methods is that the closed-loop
control is based on the explicit power control commands received
from the peer entity, whereas in the open-loop control the
transmitting entity estimates the required power level by itself from
the received signal. Both of these methods are used in the UTRAN.
The closed-loop power control in the UTRAN can be further divided
into two processes: inner-loop and outer-loop power control.
The outer loop power control sets the signal-to-interference ratio
(SIR target)
The inner-loop power control in layer 1 adjusts the peer entity
transmit power so that the measured SIR fulfills the SIRtarget
requirement.
The receiving entity (UE layer 1 or Node B layer 1) measures the
SIR and compares it to the SIR target.
If SIRest SIRtarget then the TPC bit is set to 0 (reduce power) in the
peer entity. Otherwise it is set to 1 (increase power).
This TPC bit is transmitted to the peer entity once every time slot.
There is no neutral TPC command; it is always either an increase or
a decrease command.
As there are 1,500 time in one second, this makes the inner loop
power control a very fast method to adjust transmission power.
Therefore inner-loop power control is also known as fast power
control.
Outer-loop power control is handled by the RRC in layer 3.
Frequency and Time Synchronization

This procedure takes place when the power is turned on in the UE.
The synchronization procedure starts with downlink SCH
synchronization.
The UE knows the SCH primary synchronization code, which is
common to all cells. The slot timing of the cell can be obtained by
receiving the primary synchronization channel (P-SCH) and
detecting peaks in the output of a filter that is matched to this
universal synchronization code.
The slot synchronization takes advantage of the fact that the P-SCH
is only sent during the first 256 chips of each slot. The whole slot is
2,560 chips long.
Thus the UE can determine when a slot starts, but it does not know
the slot number yet (there are 15 slots in each frame), and thus it
does not know where the radio frame boundary may be.
There are 16 different SSCs, and they can form 64 unique
secondary SCH sequences.

One sequence consists of 15 SSCs, and these sequences are


arranged in such a way that in any nonzero cyclic shift less than 15
of any of the 64 sequences is not equivalent to some other
sequence.

This means that once the UE has identified 15 successive SSCs, it


can determine the code group used as well as the frame
boundaries.Each code group identifies eight possible primary
scrambling codes, and the correct one is found by correlating each
candidate in turn over the CPICH of that cell.

Once the correct primary scrambling code has been identified, it can
be used to decode BCH information from the primary common
control physical channel (P-CCPCH), which is covered with the cells
unique primary scrambling code.
Power Weighting
Channels with higher QoS requirements
can be sent using relatively high power
levels
The gain factors may vary from frame to
frame based on the current transport
format combination (TFC).
QoS Parameters
Bandwidth
Delay
Error
QoS class
Conversational
Real time
Interactive
Background
Ericsson Internal | 2011-10-19 | Page 54

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