INTRODUCTION TO

MICROPROCESSOR
Microprocessor
 A microprocessor (sometimes abbreviated as μP) is a
digital electronic component with miniaturized transistors
on a single semiconductor integrated circuit (IC). One or
more microprocessors typically serve as a central
processing unit (CPU) in a computer system or handheld
device.
 It is a programmable multipurpose silicon chip, clock
driven, register based, accepts binary data as input and
provides output after processing it as per the instructions
stored in the memory.
Block Diagram of a Basic
Microcomputer
Microprocessor

 consists of an arithmetic logic unit(ALU), register array,

and a control unit.

 ALU performs arithmetical and logical operations on the

data received from the memory or an input device.
 Register array consists of a series of registers like
accumulator (A), B, C, D etc. which acts as temporary
fast access memory locations for processing data.
 The control unit controls the flow of data and instructions
within the computer.
How does a Microprocessor Work?
 The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, Decode,
and then Execute.
 Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a
sequential order. The microprocessor fetches those
instructions from the memory, then decodes it and
executes those instructions till STOP instruction is reached.
Later, it sends the result in binary to the output port.
Between these processes, the register stores the
temporarily data and ALU performs the computing
functions.
Terms used in Microprocessor
 Instruction Set − It is the set of instructions that the microprocessor
can understand.
 Bandwidth − It is the number of bits processed in a single instruction.
 Clock Speed − It determines the number of operations per second
the processor can perform. It is expressed in megahertz (MHz) or
gigahertz (GHz).It is also known as Clock Rate.
 Word Length − It depends upon the width of internal data bus,
registers, ALU, etc. An 8-bit microprocessor can process 8-bit data
at a time. The word length ranges from 4 bits to 64 bits depending
upon the type of the microcomputer.
 Data Types − The microprocessor has multiple data type formats like
binary, BCD, ASCII, signed and unsigned numbers.
Features of a Microprocessor
 Cost-effective − The microprocessor chips are available at low prices
and results its low cost.
 Size − The microprocessor is of small size chip, hence is portable.
 Low Power Consumption − Microprocessors are manufactured by
using metaloxide semiconductor technology, which has low power
consumption.
 Versatility − The microprocessors are versatile as we can use the same
chip in a number of applications by configuring the software
program.
 Reliability − The failure rate of an IC in microprocessors is very low,
hence it is reliable.
Microcontroller
 A microcontroller or MCU is a computer-on-a-chip used to
control electronic devices. It is a type of microprocessor
emphasizing self-sufficiency and cost-effectiveness, in
contrast to a general-purpose microprocessor. A typical
microcontroller contains all the memory and interfaces
needed for a simple application, whereas a general purpose
microprocessor requires additional chips to provide these
functions.
Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a single integrated circuit with the following
key features:
 central processing unit - usually small and simple
 input/output interfaces such as serial ports
 peripherals such as timers and watchdog circuits
 RAM for data storage
 ROM for program storage
 clock generator - often an oscillator for a quartz timing
crystal, resonator or RC circuit
Advantages of Microcontrollers
 Microcontrollers are inexpensive.
 Microcontrollers development tools are typically free or
significantly discounted for promotional purposes.
 Microcontroller development tools have minimal computing
resource requirements.
 Microcontroller I/O ports are easily accessible in comparison
with PC I/O.
 Microcontrollers easily interface to other electronic circuits
and devices.
Disadvantages of Microcontrollers

 Limited programming language and programming tool

choices.

 Microcontrollers are well suited to simple control and

interface tasks.
Semiconductor Memory
 Semiconductor memories refer to computer components or
devices that stores data or instructions. These devices are
broadly divided into RAM and ROM.
Random-access memory (RAM)

 A semiconductor memory that allows the stored data to be

accessed in any order — that is, at random, not just in
sequence. Most RAMs are volatile memories.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)

 A semiconductor memory that cannot (easily) be written to.

All ROMs are non-volatile memories.
TYPES OF RAMs
 Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) - a type of
semiconductor memory that stores each bit of data in a
separate capacitor. As real-world capacitors, they are not
ideal and hence have leak electrons, the information
eventually fades unless the capacitor charge is refreshed
periodically. DRAM is usually arranged in a square array of
one capacitor and transistor per cell.
TYPES OF RAMs
 Static Random Access Memory – is a type of semiconductor
memory that retains data for as long as power is applied.
Because no special action (except power) is required to
retain data, this device is called a static memory. Each bit in
an SRAM is stored on four transistors. Two more transistors are
needed to access a particular bit.
TYPES OF ROMs

 Mask ROM - a kind of ROM whose contents are programmed

by the IC manufacturer. The terminology mask is used in IC
fabrication.
 User-Programmable ROM – a kind of ROM wherein users can
write data or programs into it.
 TYPES OF ROMs

 PROM (Programmable ROM) - can be written to

(programmed) via a special device, a PROM programmer.
The writing often takes the form of permanently destroying or
creating internal links (fuses or antifuses) with the result that a
PROM can only be programmed once.
TYPES OF ROMs

 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM) - can be erased by

exposure to ultraviolet light then rewritten via an EPROM
programmer. Repeated exposure to ultraviolet light will
eventually destroy the EPROM but it generally takes many
(greater than 1000) exposures before the EPROM becomes
unusable. EPROMs can be easily identified by the circular
'window' in the top which allows the UV light to enter. Once
programmed, this window is typically covered by a label to
prevent accidental
TYPES OF ROMs

 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM) - allows

the entire ROM to be electrically erased then written to
without taking them out of the computer (camera, MP3
player, etc.)
TYPES OF ROMs

 Flash Memory - a form of non-volatile memory that can be

electrically erased and reprogrammed. Unlike EEPROM, it is
erased and programmed in blocks consisting of multiple
locations.
Von Neumann Architecture
 The architecture of the great majority of general purpose
computers and microprocessors is modelled after the Von
Numann model.
Von Neumann Architecture

 Von Neumann’s great leap forward was to recognize that the

program could be stored in memory along with any data. The
advantage of this approach is flexibility. The von Neumann
architecture comprises a Central Processing Unit (CPU), a
memory and a common connecting highway carrying data
back and forth. In practice the CPU must also communicate
with the environment outside the computer.
The Central Processing Unit

 consists of the ALU/working register together with the

associated control logic. Under the management of the
control unit, program instructions are fetched from memory,
decoded and executed. Data resulting from or used by the
program is also accessed from the memory. This fetch and
execute cycle constitutes the operating rhythm of the
computer and continues indefinitely, as long as the system is
activated.
Memory

 Memory holds the bit patterns which define the program.

These sequences of instructions are known as the software.
Memory holding software should ideally be as fast as the CPU,
and normally uses semiconductor technologies. This memory
also holds data being processed by the program.
The Interface Ports

 To be of any use, a computer must be able to interact with its

environment. Although conventionally one thinks of a
keyboard and screen, any of a range of physical devices may
be read and controlled.
Data Highway

 All the elements of the von Neumann computer are wired

together with a common data highway or bus. With the CPU
acting as the master controller, all information flow is back and
forward along these shared wires. Although this is efficient, it
does mean that only one thing can happen at any time. This
phenomena is sometimes known as the von Neumann
bottleneck.
Harvard Architecture

 The Harvard architecture is an adaptation of the standard

von Neumann structure, that separates the shared memory
into entirely separate Program and Data stores. Each memory
has its own Address bus and thus there is no interaction
between a Program cell and a Data cell’s address. The Data
store is sometimes known as the File store, with each location
n being described as File n.
Harvard Architecture