Unit – I

Business Ethics
Meaning of Ethics : The word “ethics” has been
derived from the Greek word “Ethikos” or “ethos” which
means character or manners. Thus, it is said to be the
science of conduct. It deals with certain standard of
human conduct and morals. It is also a science of
morals. The field of ethics involves systematizing,
defending and recommending concepts of right and
wrong behaviour. Ethics is a mass of moral principles
or set of values about what is right or wrong, true or
false, fair or unfair proper or improper, what is right is
ethical and what’s wrong is unethical.
 Definition of Ethics
Churchill defined ethics as the application of moral
values or codes to complex problems using a rational
decision making process. The out come of this
process is usually a behaviour or set of behaviours.
Webster dictionary states that “ethics is the discipline
dealing with what is good or bad, right or wrong or
moral duty or obligation. It is a group of moral
principles or set of values. These principles govern
the conduct of an individual or a profession.
 Development of Ethics

1) Greek Ethics 2) Medieval Ethics

(Deals with moral duties of citizen) (Deals with inner aspect of ones morality

3) Modern Ethics
(Ones action should be good not only to one self but also to others)

Modern ethics deals with several ethics like

business ethics, professional ethics, medical
ethics, educational ethics, environmental ethics,
bio-ethics, eco-tourism ethics, Cyber ethical etc.
 Business Ethics
Business Ethics are application of general
ethical rules to business behaviour. It is
the application of moral principles to
business relationships & activities. Its
purpose is to guide managers &
employees in performing their jobs. Thus,
business ethics refers to application of
ethical principles to business. “According
to Velasquez” Business ethics is a
specialized study of moral right or wrong.
It concentrates on moral standards as
they apply to business policies, institutions
& behaviour.
 Ethical and unethical behaviour in business

Ethical Unethical
1) Charging fair prices 1) Using false claims in
2) Truthful advertisement advertisement
3) Paying taxes & duties 2) Using company property for
honestly personal use
4) Using fair weights & 3) Leaking confidential
measurement information
5) Fair treatment of 4) Keeping two sets of books to
workers evade tax
5) Bribing govt. official to get
undue favour
6) Adulteration of goods
7) Polluting the environment
 Need for ethics in business
1) Moral Consciousness : Due to moral consciousness many
businessman have avoided adulteration, over charging, spurious
goods, black marketing, false advertising etc.
2) Enlightened Self interest : To increase sales and profits
businessman has to serve its customers with good quality & fair
prices, treat its employees with respect & dignity reword shareholders
with good dividend & capital gain, pay tax honesty.
3) Social pressure : Social pressures from trade unions, shareholders
Associations & consumer forum & other social groups bring
pressure to avoid unethical practices to maintain good relation.
4) Legal pressure : Laws of the land need to be observed by business
houses irrespective of its self interest.
5) Protection of stake holders : Shareholders, employees, suppliers,
govt. customers, creditors & local public are to be safeguarded.
6) Code of conduct “Business code” govern the inter relationship of
members.
7) For survival
8) Business operates within the society.
Nature or Feature of Business
Ethics :
1) Business ethics is the application of moral
standard in business affairs.
2) Business ethics is a broad term & covers all
business practices that are desirable from the
society point of view.
3) It seeks to make businessmen honest, fair &
responsible citizen.
4) It requires just & fair treatment of all the stake
holders.
5) It is wider and broader term than law and
morality.
6) It helps to impose self discipline on
businessman.
Goals or Objective of Business
Ethics

1) To evaluate human practices by

calling upon moral standards.
2) To give prescriptive or curative
advice on how to act morally in a
specific kind of situation.
 Ethics and law
Law is a body of rules that are used for
regulating the conduct of the members of the
society.
• Ethics examines both the individual and
social good in all dimensions.
• What is lawful need not necessarily be
ethical.
• All types of ethical behaviour may not be
legislated.
 Ethics and Moral
Ethics is a broader term than morals. The term
moral is derived from Latin word “mos” which
means custom or usage. Custom is defined by a
group over time where as character is personal
attributes. Societies have customs where as
people have character. Ethics is treated as
scientific study of morality. Morals are generally
accepted customs & conduct & proper living in a
society. Morals indicate what people do where
as ethics indicate what people should do. Morals
are the values that have gained social
acceptance and recognition.
 Values and Ethics
Values may be defined as beliefs that guide actions
and judgment in different situations. They represent the
basic convictions about what is the right behavior.
Edward Springer defines the value “as the
constellation of likes, dislikes, view points, inner
inclination, rational & irrational judgment, prejudices and
association pattern that determines a persons view of the
world”.
Values are the deep seated ideas and feelings that
manifest themselves as a behaviour or conduct.
Values & ethics are closely related with each other.
Ethics is the entire body of moral values & values are the
language of ethics.
 TYPES OF VALUES
Instrumental Values
The values which concern the way we approach the end states. These relate to means for achieving desired results. That is, do we
believe in ambition, cleanliness, honesty or obedience, courage etc.
Some are like –
 Hard work and achievement.  Education and intellectual pursuits  Self-sufficiency; independence.  Truthfulness; honesty. 
Assertiveness; Standing up for yourself.  Being well-mannered and courteous towards others.  Open-mindedness; receptivity to
new ideas.  Caring towards others.

Terminal Values
They are those end state goals that we praise such as comfortable life, a sense of accomplishment, equality among all people.
 Happiness; satisfaction in life.  Peace and harmony in the world.  Knowledge and wisdom
 Pride in accomplishment.  Security; freedom from threat.
Both sets of values have significant influence on daily behavior at work.

Negative and PositiveValues

The values can also be categorized as negative and positive values which denote a sense of right or wrong, good or bad and other
judgmental criteria based on our strong sense of what the ideal ought to be.

NegativeValues
 Anger  Meanness  Arrogance  Crookedness  Greed  Lust
They generate negative thoughts

PositiveValues
 Integrity, honesty  Truthfulness  Kind heartedness, humility  Friendliness  Faith  Self-respect
 Open mindedness  Creativity  Civil sense  Simplicity  Forgiveness  Poise  Detachment, etc
They generate positive thoughts.
 Attitude of Indian Managers Towards Business Ethics
Prof. Arun Monappa conducted a survey of 115 business executives
regarding attitude towards business ethics. They were belonging to
different industries, ages, educational standards, religious affiliations and
income groups. They were attending the middle and senior management
programme of I.I.M. Ahmedabad. The findings are given in his work
Ethical Attitudes of Indian managers, are as follows :
1) A majority of business managers believe in good ethics. Various
circumstances like unnatural competition, company policy and
plethora of rules and regulations often prevent the managers from
putting this belief into practice.
2) The problem that caused managers the greatest concern were those
which involved ‘buying business’; using gifts, bribes, personal favours,
etc.
3) Most managers do take time in making a decision to consider the
ethical implications.
4) Managers reiterated the importance of company policy in influencing
ethical action. A man’s personal code of conduct was given only a
second place.
5) The influence of supervisors through whom the company policy is
most often transmitted, was considered important in influencing
ethical action.
6) Dishonest methods of competitors and unethical climate in the
industry were often cited as deterrents to the honest transaction of
business.
7) Corruption and greed of government officials red-tapism, nepotism and
suffocating regulations were considered obstacles to ethical business
behaviour.
8) The attitudes and reactions of the older business managers to situations
demonstrated a greater ethical awareness than those of younger ones.
9) The size of company had no discernible influence on ethical decision-
making.
10)Managers were dissatisfied with the idea that profits should be the only
guidelines for a businessman in decision-making.
11)Formal education and training did not seem to have stimulated the desire to
act honestly.
12)The ethical attitudes of those who belonged to a religion which was more
organized were no better than those in whose religion there is no much
scope for guidance.
13)Certain areas like construction, engineering research and development,
banking, investment and insurance seemed more prone to encouraging
unethical practices that others.
14)A majority of the managers welcomed the idea of a code of conduct and
felt it would help to improve the ethical climate in the country.
15)Managers felt that management of each company, i.e., self-regulation,
would be the authority best suited to enforce the code.
THREE VALUES SYSTEM FOR INDIAN MANAGERS
Simplicity – Sacrifice - Sharing
 Social Ethics
There's a lot said about humans being
social animals and all that, but do all
human beings know correctly how to
live in society? We all know the
answer to that is doubtful. Here are
the basic tenets of social ethics.
Check out if you fall short anywhere.
You can remove a man from society but you
cannot remove society from the man. Truer words
have never been said. Even if you are
shipwrecked and lonely on an island à la
Robinson Crusoe, you will be straitjacketed about
doing your morning business out there in the
open. But that is how we human beings are
created. We learnt the meaning of modesty right
there in the Garden of Eden, and it has hounded
us ever since. Of course, the depth to which
social consciousness exists in the human race
varies from person to person, but it exists in
everyone, without a doubt.
And yet, it is almost embarrassing to see how
many people we meet everyday are totally
ignorant of social ethics. They are conscious
about society, all right, but they are simply
baboon-like when it comes to obeying the
unwritten social ethics that society has laid down
since Genesis. Why the differences? Simply
because everyone is not made aware of social
ethics in the same manner. Social ethics are a
part of a person's cumulative education, and that,
of course, depends on observation. Different
people observe in different measures, and that’s
the reason everyone has a different notion of
social ethics.
Let us embark on a mammoth task
now. Standardizing social ethics.
Learning the right kind of social ethics.
That's one thing that has never been
attempted before. But let me try. We
have to begin somewhere – this could
be a good precursor to all the
Neanderthals out there, a sort of
launching pad. Don't worry; I'll make
this quick and painless ;-).
Social Ethics Principle # 1: Share

John: There's a hungry man outside, Mamma.

Asking for food.
Mother: Give him your sandwich, dearie. I'll make
you another.
Father: Yeah, all right. Just make sure you don’t
give him anything more from the larder. And ask if
he can help me mow the lawn.
We are creatures living in a very
symbiotic society. As such, we need to
share. Give and take. And that
becomes the first social ethic we need
to learn. When you give something to a
deserving person, it does come back to
you in some way or the other. It's not
necessary to give something material.
Sometimes a smile or a pat on the
shoulder could be the best gift you
could give.
But remember to give within limits.
Too many gifts can spoil a person.
And you will be perennially hounded
for more and more help. Give, but
within limits; and when you have
given, do expect some kind of
repayment, directly or indirectly.
Social Ethics Principle # 2: Acknowledge

Mother: How did school go today, John?

John: Oh, it was fun! Mrs. March actually
praised my show-and-tell.
Mother: God bless her soul!
Father: Certainly! I am sure little Johnnie
will be getting much more schoolwork done
now. If only that big boss of mine would
appreciate what I chip in for his firm…
Society is built when people begin praising
each other's talents. Whether we are talking
about the President or a newspaper boy,
they are giving something to make this
society roll. That is why it is extremely
important to give everyone their due credit. I
don't know about you, but when someone
praises me for an article I write, I am just
egged on to write a better one. So, whether
it is a schoolboy or your grandma, they
need their acknowledgment to work better
for you.
Social Ethics Principle # 3: Participate

John: Mamma, Justin's folks are having a

garage sale this Saturday.
Mother: Yes, I know. Gina told me. I am
baking some cookies for the sale, John.
John: Can I be with Justin on Saturday?
There's no school as it is.
Mother: Sure! I'll be there too, anyways.
Father: Hope I can do something useful too.
Now let me see what…
Living is fun when you live together. I am not speaking
just about family, but the whole society, in general.
Helping the Joneses out in their events is always fun,
especially if you know that they will help out with yours
too. Of course, we must not be meddlesome, and must
understand when we are not required. Being human,
you will have an inner sense of understanding that.
Participation is required on a national and global
level also. We must be aware of our politics and
civics, know our rights and duties, and perform them
wholeheartedly. Social ethics demands that we make
a collective effort at success, like ants lifting a heavy
tidbit of food. That’s how companies and nations
succeed – doesn’t matter what size they are. Unity is
strength.
Social Ethics Principle # 4: Assert

John: It's Rupert again, Mamma.

Mother: What did he do now?
John: He ran away with my lunchbox
and emptied it behind a tree.
Father: So, did you fight him back, or
simply came running here to mamma?
Mother: Peter!
It's like driving on the freeway. Even if you are
sure you are driving like a real good taxpaying
and law-abiding citizen, some speed maniac
might come and mutilate your rear fender. Or the
front hood if you are not so lucky. Is it worth being
a Sad Sack about it? Not at all! We must at least
have a tongue to speak out that we are in the
right. And prove that to the authorities. Of course,
we must not go the mafia way about it – that will
only compound matters and snowball into
unbearable things – but we must at least assert
when we haven’t done anything wrong.
When our nation's integrity is threatened by
outside forces, what do we do? Sit back and
watch Nickelodeon? No, we give it back
every bit. However, in the routine walk of
life, we do not actually fight, but we must
surely Get up, stand up… Stand up for your
rights… (thanks, Bob, you said it for me.)
Social Ethics Principle # 5: Accept

John: I won the elocution too, Mamma.

Here's the medal.
Mother: Lovely, John! Really!
Father: Wish someone would give me
something for busting my bottom too.
Mother: Peter, why don’t you learn to be a
bit more optimistic and less grumpy about
things? I think you are getting old.
Father: Ah! Let's not put back our snorkeling
vacation any more then.
Tell me frankly, how many weeping willows
do you meet in a day? I am talking about
those typical people who always carry some
sort of complaint on their shirt sleeve. The
government is going to the dogs, the traffic
is gone bonkers, elections are a whole lot of
garbage, bureaucracy is sickeningly crazy,
etc. etc. Don't you just get tired of just
listening to these grievances? But then, you
will be surprised at how many times you
complain yourself.
What we must actually do is, put our hands
together and try, in whatever small way we
can, to better the society to live in. Do
anything we can. Plant a tree for all it takes.
But do something to improve the quality of
life. And, miraculously enough, when we
actually do something constructive – I
mean, something socially benefiting for
which we are not paid any greenbucks – we
will be amazed to see how much more
acceptable we become of the society we
live in.
Social ethics are a very complex
subject, and there cannot be any
parallels drawn in the way different
people must behave. But it does pay to
be responsible for the society we live
in, and endeavor to make a better place
to live in.
 Unit - II
ETHICAL RELATIVISM
Ethical relativism is the position that all points of view
are equally valid and the individual determines what is
true and relative for them. Relativism theorizes that truth
is different for different people, not simply that different
people believe different things to be true. While there are
relativists in science and mathematics, ethical relativism
is the most common variety of relativism. Almost
everyone has heard a relativist slogan:
•What’s right for you may not be what’s right for me.
•What’s right for my culture won’t necessarily be what’s
right for your culture.
•No moral principles are true for all people at all times
and in all places.
Ethical relativism represents the position that
there are no moral absolutes, no moral right or
wrong. This position would assert that our morals
evolve and change with social norms over a
period of time. This philosophy allows people to
mutate ethically as the culture, knowledge, and
technology change in society. Slavery is a good
example of ethical relativism. Repeatedly the
value of a human being is determined by a
combination of social preferences and patterns,
experience, emotions, and “rules” that seemed to
bring about the most benefit.
What is ethical relativism from a subjective view? Subjective
ethical relativism supports the view that the truth of moral
principles is relative to individuals. Whatever you believe is right
for you personally is completely up to you to determine. Subjective
relativism allows you to be sovereign over the principles that
dictate how you live your life.

Conventional ethical relativism supports the view that the truth of

moral principles is relative to cultures. Unlike the subjective view,
what is right for you as an individual is dependant upon what your
particular culture believes is right for you. This view supports the
concept that whatever culture says is right for you really is right for
you. The culture or society becomes the highest authority about
what is right for each individual within that society. Conventional
relativism places the individual’s will subordinate to the will of the
cultural majority.
What is ethical relativism from an absolute view?
The desire to have an absolute set of ethics
implies an Absolute Ethics Source which can
easily be deduced as being God. This position
would be opposed to ethical relativism. Instead,
the relativist excludes any religious system based
on absolute morals and would condemn absolute
ethics. God has the power to convey things to us
that are absolute truthful and ethical. Those
absolutes, however, may not be to our liking or
please our subjective tastes. “‘For my thoughts
are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my
ways,’ declares the Lord” (Isaiah 55:8).
on an individual’s or a society’s moral choices is
analogous to using our sense of touch to determine
the extent of a child's fever. When a child is sick, a
more precise and consistent measurement is
imperative. Our mental growth and the health of our
soul is also worthy of a more accurate gauge than
subjective human feelings. Conventional relativism
implies that all you have to do is convince a few of
your close friends to engage in some activity that is
viewed as immoral by the rest of society. Suddenly you
have now made the previously unacceptable activity
ethically and morally correct for you. “There is a way
that seems right to a man, but in the end it leads to
death” (Proverbs 14:12).
 Ethical decisions – How are they made?
Ethical decisions are made by considering
the four factors like

i. The end-the outcome sought

ii. The means- the method employed
iii. The motive- the necessity or urge to make
decision
iv. The foreseeable consequences
 The ten commandments results of legal and
ethical intelligence gathering by Fuld & Co
are as follows:
1. Thou shalt (you shall) not lie when
representing thyself.
2. Thou shalt observe thy company’s legal
guidelines as set forth by the legal department.
3. Thou shalt not tape record a conversation
4. Thou shalt not bribe
5. Thou shalt not plant eaves (lower age of roof
that stick out over the walls) dropping devices
6. Thou shalt not deliberately mislead any
one in interview
7. Thou shalt neither obtain from nor give
thy competitor any price information
8. Thou shalt not swap (exchange)
misinformation
9. Thou shalt not steal a trade secret
10. Thou shalt not knowingly press some one
for information if it may jeoparadise
(harm or risk) that person’s job or
reputation.
 Situation Ethics and Pragmatism

Situation ethics is related to ethical decision

to be made depending up on the situation or
circumstances.

Pragmatism is a philosophy doctrine that

evaluates a concepts on the basis of their
practical consequences. Thus, a business
ethics has to be more practical than theory
oriented.
 Ethical conflicts and Ethical Congruence
Congruence means having same shape & same size.
The organizational state where values, behaviors and
perceptions are alligned is called Ethical Congruence
“Feeding the hog” and “Silent Saboteurs” are
various form of ethical conflict.
Feeding the hog is a unique way of punishing their
employees for perceived wrong. It is one of the two
most powerful drives that cause good people to do
bad things. It is how people strike back when they
believe the organization is being unfair (Hog is
mechanical wood chipper on the back of the plant to
feed all unusable scrap)
Silent saboteur is related to behavior of
employees. Saboteur is a person who does
deliberately damage to some thing to prevent
enemy from using it. Silent because no body
talks about them and saboteur because they
undermine the organization business plan,
creating failures, eating at its effectiveness
from the inside like a cancer. Often they are
clever but never funny
The common practice which the individuals
employ to meet organizational requirement
for success at very high cost to their
employees are:
1. Scape goating: Blaming failure on someone
or something (Eg. Monkey, Goat, etc.)
2. Budgeteering: Manipulating budgets &
expenses
3. Over promising: making commitments one
intends to ignore
4. Turf guarding: Hoarding resources and
control
5. Under archieving: Doing the minimum
needed to get by.
6. Risk avoiding: Taking the safe position,
even when it is wrong.
7. Sharp penciling: Making results look
better than they are
8. Empire building: Accumulating power
and control
 Normative Ethics in Management
Ethics relate to study of morality. But ethics are
not only one to study morality, social sciences
like anthropology, sociology and psychology
also study morality. These social sciences
engage in a descriptive study of ethics. A
descriptive study attempts to describe or
explain the world without reaching any
conclusion about whether the world is as it
should be.
Normative Study: Normative study is an
investigation that attempts to reach normative
(describing or setting std or rules of behavior)
conclusions about what things are good or bad
or what actions are right or wrong. Thus,
normative study aims to discover what should
be?
 Normative ethics in Management

The Holistic Theory Teleological Theory Deontological Theory

Eternal Empirical Ethical Justice

Utilitarian Right
Ethics Ethics egoism Principle
Principle Principle
 Ethical Theories:
In ethical theory, important division is made
between the claim that it is possible to known
moral right from wrong and the denial of that
claim. The claim and counter claim about that
we can and con not know, the position which
declares we can know is called “cognitivism”
and vice-versa it is “non cognitivism”
Ethical theory may be classified in to the
following four types.

1. Teleological Theory
2. Deontological Theory
3. Hybrid Theory
4. Concept of Virtue
1. Teleological Theory
The word teleological is derived from the
Greek word “telos” means end. Teleological
ethics focuses on the end results and then
relating the end result to the process of
achieving the autonomy of the individual. In
theological theory actions are justified on
technological theories by virtue of the end they
achieve rather than feature of the actions
themselves. Teleological have two aspects:
1. Ethical egoism
2. Utilitarianism principle
1. Ethical egoism: It is normative theory about what we
ought to do, how we ought to act. Ethical egoism may
be individual ethical egoism or universal ethical
egoism.
2. Utilitarianism is the ethical theory which finds the
basis of moral distinctions in the utility of actions i.e.,
their fitness to produce happiness. Utility means
usefulness – the usefulness of actions which determines
their moral character rather than anything in the nature
of the action itself. Utilitarianism is a powerful and
widely accepted ethical theory that has specific
relevance to problems in business. It fits easily with
the concept of value in economics and the use of
cost benefit analysis.
 Classical and Traditional Utilitarianism:
Classical Utilitarianism: In classical utilitarianism,
pleasure is taken to be ultimately the only good and
evil is opposite of pleasure or pain. Goodness here is
human well being whatever makes human beings
generally better off or provides some benefit is good.
Whatever makes them worse off or harm them is
evil.
Traditional Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham and
John Stuart Mill have created this concept.
According to them utilitarianism was not an ivory
tower philosophy but a powerful instrument for
social, political, economic & legal change.
 Jeremy Bentham version of Utilitarianism:
The principle of utility means that principle which
approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever;
i. According to the tendency which it appears to have
argument.
ii. Diminish the happiness of the party work interest is
in question.
iii. What is the something in other words to promote or
to oppose that happiness.
The principle required that the consequence can be
measured in some way so that the pleasure and pain of
different individuals can be added together & the results
of different courses of action can be compared.
Criticism:
Critics said that “ Utilitarianism” is a pig
“philosophy” and fit only for swine. As per the critics
it would be better to live the life of the satisfied pig
than that of a dissatisfied human beings.
John Stuart Mill’s version of Utilitarianism
considering criticism of Bentham’s theory John Stuart
attempted to develop a more defensible version of the
utilitarian position.
 The creed which accepts as the foundation
of morals, utility, or the greatest happiness
principle, holds that actions are right in
proportion as they tend to promote
happiness, wrong as they tend to produce
the reverse of happiness (Happiness is
John Stuart Mill’s
Version intended pleasure, absence of pain;
is
Of Utilitarianism unhappiness is pain and the privation of
pleasure)

It is better to be a human being

dissatisfied than a pig dissatisfied. Better
to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool
satisfied. And if the fool or the pig are of
a different opinion, it is because they
know only, their side of the question.
 Two versions of Utilitarianism
1. Act Utilitarianism (AU): implies an action is right if
& only if it produces the greatest balance of pleasure over
pain for every one.
2. Rule Utilitarianism (RU): implies an action is right
if and only if it conforms to a set of rules the general
acceptance of which would produce the greatest balance
of pleasure over pain for everyone.
 Consequentialism v/s Non-Consequentialism

Theories which assess moral right & wrong in terms of

consequences of actions &those which do not are termed
as “Consequeutialist” theories & non-consequentialist
theories.
In consequentiality theory, we look to the results of
actions to determine the truth or falsity of moral judgment
about them
In non-consequentiality theory, there is no immediate
appeal to beneficial or harmful consequences to decide
good or bad. It is right & wrong that determines good or
bad.
 Deontological Theory
The word “Deontological” is derived from Greek word
‘deon’ which mean duty. Therefore, deontology is the science
of duty. Obligation or duty is the fundamental moral category
in deontological theory. It consists of set of absolute moral
rules as presented by British philosopher W.D.Ross.
Deontology defines an action as right if it respects the moral
rules and wrong if it violates them. There are different types
of deontology. Deontology reflects important features of our
moral common sense, but it usually breaks down as a guide
to conflict when lists of rules differ or when rules conflict.
Thus, Deontological theory holds that certain actions are
right not because of some benefit to ourselves or even to
others, but because of the nature of these actions or the
rules from which they follow.
 Kantianism

Kantianism is an ethics of duty. Non-

Consequentialism in ethics is an approach
labeled “Deontological”(for duty). This
approach is mainly provided by German
Philosopher Immanuel Kant. According to
Kant an action is morally right only if the
person performing it is motivated by a
goodwill & vice-versa. The possession of a
such a will alone makes the action right,
the absence makes it wrong
 Virtue Ethics

Virtue has different meaning like excellence, worth,

good or useful quality, behavior or attitude that show high
moral standard etc. Aristotle defines virtue as a character,
trait that manifests itself in habitual action. For the Greeks
virtue means excellence & ethics was concerned with
excellence of human character. Virtues are acquired traits.
Mere feelings likes hunger are not virtues according to
Aristotle. Aristotle classified virtue as a state of character
which is different from a feeling or a skill. A virtue is
something that we admire in a person; a virtue is an
excellence of some kind that is worth having its own sake.
Virtues are those state that every one needs for the good
ones no matter his or her specific situation.
 Utilitarian & Kantian ethics address the question of
what actions are right? But virtue ethics ask what kind of
person should we be? Moral character rather than right
action is fundamental in this ethical tradition. Virtue
theorists try to identify the list of virtues. The list of
possible virtues is long & include courage, honesty,
benevolence, tolerance, generosity, self control etc. Virtue
theory seems to fill a gap left by other theories. Other
theories focused primarily on actions & decision making
while virtue theory focused on moral character.