AC Induction Motor Problems:

Loose in Winding Slots, Iron, End Turns And/Or Connections

Figure 1 - Velocity FFT Showing Pattern Of Peaks Separated By 2xLine Frequency (Sidebands) In High Frequency Range (30-
90xRPM). This Will Be Accompanied By The Symptom Seen In Figure 2:

Figure 2 - Envelope Plot Showing 2xLine Peak And Harmonics. This Indicates Impacts Occurring At 2xLine Frequency.
Looseness in the winding slots- are detectable with vibration analysis but cannot be trended towards failure since
the problem does not worsen (vibration-wise) prior to winding failure. The problem causes wear of the insluation on
the windings and eventually a ground short (catastrophic failure). Only winding testers (surge testing) can trend
this problem and assess the severity. It is commonly found and should not be over-reacted to. The symptoms are
very similar to loose rotor bars on the velocity / acceleration spectra. Additionally, however, there will be high
amplitude peaks on your enveloping spectra (e.g. gSE spectrum) at 2 x FLine and harmonics. Each time a rotor bar
passes the loose winding, it lifts and then drops back. The vibration frequency, therefore, is the number of rotor
bars x RPM (rotor bar pass frequency = RBPF). Like WSPF, it will be surrounded by 2 x FLine sidebands. Like the
number of winding slots, we won't know the number of rotor bars but it's not important - the pattern of peaks
separated by 2 x FLine is the clue we need.

Looseness In The Windings Symptoms:

•High amplitude at a very high frequency (RBPF, but we don't know what it is) accompanied by sidebands at
2 x FLine. This is not unusual and often means little. In fact, it often has more to do with a potential winding
problem than rotor bar looseness (see the next page).
•Amplitude peaks on the enveloping spectra at 2 x FLine and harmonics.
Recommended Actions:
•Surge testing to check insulation integrity and test for any wire to wire, turn to turn and phase to phase
shorts as well as the integrity of the ground wall insulation.

Figure 3 - Motor Construction

Figure 4 -Winding Construction
 AC Variable Frequency Drives
Variable Frequency Drives - VFD's are AC motors that give the operator the speed control that a DC
Drive normally provides at a small fraction of the cost and difficulty in maintenance and
troubleshooting. It operates exactly as an AC induction motor does with all of the same electrically
generated frequencies. That's the good news. The bad news is that a VFD is the vibration analyst's
worst nightmare. For example, the vibration frequencies detectable with both AC induction motors
and DC motors are constant - only a couple vary at all and they are part of a easily recognizable
pattern. With a VFD, the speed is controlled by modifying the frequency of the power supply. In
other words, a motor normally running at 3550 rpm can be slowed down to, say, 1775 rpm (1/2)
by reducing line frequency from 60 Hz to 30 Hz. In all likelihood, however, you will not know the
exact frequency being supplied to the motor and that is the problem. Some of the effects of this
change are:
•2 x FLine is unknown. This makes identifying air gap and soft foot problems more difficult.
•Slip Frequency is unknown. This makes identifying rotor bars problems more difficult.
•Sidebands occurring at 2 x FLine are unknown. This not only makes loose rotor bars or
windings more difficult but also greatly increases the likelihood of confusing an electrical
problem with a bearing problem.
Extreme care must be taken with VFD's and especially with bearing defects. Speed at the time of
data collection should always be noted as accurately as possible and the analyst's knowledge of the
machine's normal operating characteristics is even more important than usual.
 DC Drives

Figure 1 - "Normal" FFT Taken

On DC Drive

DC Drives - generate certain electrical frequencies due to the way the drive itself works. Direct
current is the flow of electricity in one direction (as opposed to alternating current which changes
direction at a rate of 60 times per second). However, a DC drive gets its power supplied by an AC
power source. Since AC power is a sinusoid, the drive cuts off the bottom ("-" portion) of the sine
wave in order to get a constant "+" voltage. This is done with an SCR - a 'Silicon Controlled
Rectifier'. Using a single SCR, however, would result in a '+' peak followed by a period of no current
flow since the '-' peak would be cut off. This would be unacceptable as it would lead to a surging,
pulsing power supply. A better solution is to have 3 SCR's with the AC signals separated by a 120°
phase lag. The following animation shows how that would create a much more constant power
supply.
This type of drive arrangement is known as "half-wave rectified". You can see from the animation
that FLine is supplied to the drive. However, if the drive is operating properly, what frequency
would you see ? That's right - 3x FLine. 3x FLine is a normal vibration frequency to be found on a
DC motor. This frequency is known as SCR firing frequency, or FSCR. The amplitude at FSCR can be
up to 0.1 ips (2.5 mm/sec) before beginning to cause any notice. There can also be a small
amplitude peak at 2x FSCR. There is also another type of drive known as 'full-wave rectified' that
uses 6 AC signals. It would work like this:

FSCR on a full-wave rectified drive is, of course, 6x FLine. You can see how a full-wave rectified
drive gives better control and a more constant voltage than a half-wave rectified drive does.
 DC Drive Problems

Figure 1 - Full-Wave Rectified Velocity Spectrum w/ Drive Problems

Figure 2 - Half-Wave Rectified Velocity Spectrum w/ Drive Problems

 Figure 3 - Spectrum on DC Motor w/ Speed Fluctuations

DC Drive Problem Symptoms:

•Excessive (or increasing) amplitudes at FLine and/or FSCR. These can indicate tuning problems, grounding
problems, winding problems, etc.
•Peaks at other FLine harmonics - 2x, 3x, 4x, 5x. With the exception of half-wave rectifiers (where 3x FLine is
the SCR firing freq.), these peaks should never be present. For example, consider the full-wave rectified
signal below. Imagine having a bad SCR. You would get an amplitude peak at 5 x FLine (instead of 6x) plus
an increased peak at 1 x FLine. A bad firing card, which can control 1 SCR (half-wave) or 2 SCRs (full-wave),
can cause the loss of 1/3 of the power. This causes peaks at 1/3 x FSCR and 2/3 x FSCR. The exact
frequencies will depend on whether the drive is full-wave rectified or half-wave rectified and the FLine
supplied.
•Sidebands around FSCR. These sidebands typically indicate that the motor speed is fluctuating or 'hunting'.
This can be caused by comparitor card problems. A high resolution spectrum (at least 1600 lines, probably
3200 and possibly even 6400 lines - depends on motor speed) may be required to detect these sidebands.
The hunting may be most easily detected initially with a strobe light.
•Whenever abnormal symptoms develop, the drive itself must be thoroughly analyzed. The exact symptoms,
however, should provide important clues as to where to look first.

DC Drive Problems typically show up on a vibration spectrum as amplitude peaks at multiples of FLine between
FLine and FSCR. With a full-wave rectifier, this includes 2 x FLine, 3 x FLine, 4 x FLine and 5 x FLine. With a half-
wave rectifier, it means only 2 x FLine. In each case, however, it often means high amplitudes at 1 x FLine and
FSCR. It is important that the vibration analyst either have a good understanding or work with someone who has a
good understanding of the electronic components in the drive (# of SCRs, # of firing cards, control cards, how to
tune the system, etc.).
 Gears
Gears & Gear Trains - As with other mechanical influences, gears generate vibration under normal
circumstances. The most common frequency generated is a the number of teeth x RPM. This is
known as 'gear mesh frequency' (GMF). Since the gear rotates at the speed of the shaft, there is
often a modulation of the vibration at 1x shaft rpm. To better understand the concept of "amplitude
modulation", let's examine some generated signals and how the FFT turns the signal into a
spectrum.
The signal below is represents pure sinusoidal motion - the kind of signal you only get on the
classroom drawing board or in a manual - rarely (if ever) in real life. There are only, in fact,
two sources that create such a signal - unbalance and resonance. The result of performing an
FFT on this signal is shown below - a single peak labeled on the spectrum at 605 cpm. Note
how each cycle takes 100 msec (0.1 seconds). That equals 10 cycles per second (10 Hz) or
600 cpm.

Figure 1: Time Domain for 360 msec (0.360 seconds)

The next signal below also represents sinusoidal motion but at a much higher frequency - 22x the
frequency above or 13,200 cpm. The time sample has remained the same - 360 msec. This could
be generated by a gear with 22 teeth on it mounted on a shaft running at 600 rpm (just like the
shaft in Figures 1 & 2 - what a coincidence !!). Of course, there is no influence at all at 1x rpm on
the below signal (we'll get to that next).

Figure 2 - FFT performed on signal in Figure 1

 Figure 3 - Time Domain for 360 msec
(0.360 seconds)

Figure 4 - FFT performed on signal in Figure 3

Now let's look at how these separate signals can combine.
 Gears
What happens if we put the two signals together ? We get what is called a high frequency riding a
low frequency. In other words, the high frequency vibration rides along on the low frequency as if
on a roller coaster. There is no 'modulation' of amplitude. In other words, the height (amplitude)
from the top of any peak to the bottom of the previous or next valley is constant. The same applies
to the low frequency - the amplitude remains constant. The FFT will create two peaks - one for the
high frequency and one for the low frequency.

Figure 1: Time Domain for 360 msec (0.360 seconds)

Now let's consider a situation with 'amplitude modulation'. Consider 2 mating gears where one is
eccentric. At one point during that gear's rotation, it will bottom out with the mating gear and the
vibration at GMF will be very high. In Figure 3, that occurs at about 100 msec, 200 msec and 300
msec. At the opposite point in its rotation, the teeth will be backed away from one another a
maximum amount and the amplitude at GMF may be at a minimum (we'll ignore problems such as
gear loading and backlash for the purposes of this example). In Fig. 3, that occurs at about 50
msec, 150 msec and 250 msec.

Figure 2 - FFT performed on signal in Figure 1

Figure 3: Time Domain for 360 msec (0.360 seconds)

What is happening here is a modulation of the amplitude at gear mesh frequency. Moreover, it is
going from its minimum amplitude to its maximum and back again to its minimum at a rate of once
per shaft revolution - 1x rpm. What the FFT will generate from this signal is a peak at GMF with
sidebands at 1x rpm. This type of modulation is where sidebands come from - they are generated
by the FFT process. The spectrum would appear like this:
Figure 4: GMF w/ Sidebands (amplitude modulation)

Some amplitude modulation on a gear train is not unusual and should not cause over-reaction. The
number of and size of the sidebands should be closely monitored. Even more significant can be the
development of an amplitude peak at the natural frequency of the gear or gears. Wear or impacting
due to problems such as backlash can cause the excitation of the natural frequency of a gear. The
problem, of course, is that you will not know that natural frequency. Its appearance on a spectrum
must be noticed and investigated.
 Gear Problems:
Normal Gear Spectrum

Figure 1 - "Normal" Spectrum

Normal Gear Drive Symptoms:

•Amplitude peaks at 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF.
•Low amplitude and few sidebands around 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF at 1x rpm of gear with
problem.
 Gear Problems:
Gear Eccentricity / Gear On Bent Shaft

Figure 1 - Typical FFT For Eccentric Gear Or Gear On Bent Shaft

Gear Eccentricity or Bent Shaft (@ gear) - Causes modulation of GMF amplitude at 1x rpm of the
eccentric gear. Can also cause modulation of the shaft speeds of the gears if the problem is severe
enough. If the output gear were eccentric, that gear's 1x rpm peak would be higher and the
sidebands would be spaced at that frequency instead of 1x rpm of the pinion.
Eccentric Gear Or Gear On Bent Shaft Symptoms:
•Higher amplitudes at 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF.
•High amplitude sidebands around 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF at 1x rpm of gear with problem.
•Higher amplitudes at 1x rpm of gear with problem and, if the problem is severe, running
speed harmonics of that frequency.
Recommended Actions:
•Inspect gears for wear patterns and check for proper mesh depth.
•Inspect gears for proper backlash (similar symptoms - see next page).
 Gear Problems:
Excessive Backlash

Figure 1 - Typical FFT For Ecessive Backlash

Excessive Backlash - Causes high amplitudes at GMF and harmonics. Also, the impacting excites
the natural frequency of the gear(s). This can cause unexplained frequencies to appear - they may
be the resonant frequencies of the gear(s). The less loaded the gears are, the more effect the
excessive backlash has.
Excessive Backlash Symptoms:
•Higher amplitudes at 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF.
•High amplitude sidebands around 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF at 1x rpm of one or both of the gears.
•Amplitude peak at resonant frequency of the gear(s).
•Sidebands at 1x rpm surrounding the resonant frequency.
Recommended Actions:
•Inspect gears for proper backlash.
•Inspect gears for wear patterns and check for proper mesh depth (similar symptoms - see
previous page).
 Gear Problems:
Gear Wear (Tooth Wear)

Figure 1 - Typical FFT Showing Wear On Gear Teeth

Gear Wear - Causes high amplitudes at GMF and harmonics. Also, the rubbing / wearing action
excites the natural frequency of the gear(s). This can cause unexplained frequencies to appear -
they may be the resonant frequencies of the gear(s). The two key indicators are the appearance of
the gear's resonant frequency w/ sidebands and the size and number of sidebands surrounding 1, 2
and/or 3x GMF - not the amplitudes at GMF and harmonics alone (these are better indicators for
load and alignment).
Gear Wear Symptoms:
•Higher amplitudes at 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF.
•High amplitude sidebands around 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF at 1x rpm of the worn gear.
•Amplitude peak at resonant frequency of the gear(s).
•Sidebands at 1x rpm of the worn gear surrounding the resonant frequency.
Recommended Actions:
•Inspect gears for wear patterns and check for proper mesh depth (similar symptoms - see
previous page).
•Inspect gears for proper backlash.
 Gear Problems:
Gear Load

Figure 1 - Typical FFT Showing Gear Load Problems

Gear Load - Often affects GMF and harmonics more than the running speed sidebands which are
low amplitude and relatively few. Increases and decreases in GMF and harmonics alone (without
significant change in sidebands) does not necessarily indicate a problem. Even if the load itself is
fairly constant, the gear that is carrying the load is constantly changing so this amplitude can
change from data collection to data collection without any deterioration of the gear condition
whatsoever. A change in the load itself can also occur and have an even more dramatic impact on
the spectrum amplitudes without reflecting any problem.
Gear Load Symptoms:
•Higher amplitudes at 1, 2 and/or 3x GMF.
Recommended Actions:
•None unless there is an increase in sideband activity or the appearance of possible gear
resonant frequencies.