TKS 3245 PERANCANGAN ALAT PROSES

Evelyn, ST., MSc., MEng., PhD.

Department of Chemical Engineering
University of Riau-Indonesia
evelyn@unri.ac.id
2018
Materi kuliah Perancangan Alat Proses (TKS 3245)

Disain mekanik menara/kolom.

Disain tangki berpengaduk.
Disain cylone dan hydrocyclone.

Buku yang bisa digunakan:

Disain mekanik menara/kolom/bejana bertekanan
Coulson Vol. 6. 4th edition (2005), Chapter 13 Mechanical Design
of Process Equipment.
Brownell and Young (1959), Process Equipment Design, Chapter
9 Design Tall Vertical Vessel.
James R. Couper, W. Roy Penney, James R. Fair, Stanley M.
Walas (2005), Chemical Process Equipment – Selection and
Design.

Disain tangki berpengaduk

Joshi (1976). Process Equipment Design (Chapter 14 Agitator)
McCabe et al, 5th edition (1993), Unit Operation of Chemical
Engineering, Chapter 9 Agitation and Mixing of Liquid

Disain hydrocyclone dan cyclone

Coulson Volume 6, 4th edition (2005), page 422 to 426 for hydrocyclone
(liquid cyclone) and page 450 to 457 for cyclone separator (gas cyclone).
PROCESS VESSELS

&
TKS 3245 SYLLABUS CONTENT
• Introduction
• Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards
• Fundamental Principles and Equations
• General Design Considerations: Pressure Vessels
• The Design of Thin-walled Vessels Under Internal Pressure
• Compensation for Openings and Branches
• Design of Vessels Subject to External Pressure
• Design of Vessels Subject to Combined Loading
• Vessel Supports
• Bolted Flanged Joints
• Heat-Exchanger Tube Plates
• Welded-Joint Design
• Fatigue Assessment Of Vessels
• Pressure Tests
• High-Pressure Vessels
• Liquid Storage Tanks
INTRODUCTION
The basic requirements for process plant design:

• Safe and reliable: high-strength materials, good

toughness; materials and media compatibility;
structure has sufficient rigidity and buckling
capability; good sealing performance
• Meet process requirements: functional requirements;
life requirements (pressure vessel: 20 years, the
tower, the reaction apparatus: 15 year).
• Comprehensive economic good: high efficiency, low
energy consumption; reasonable structure, easy to
manufacture, compact; easy to transport and install.
• Easy to operate, maintain and control: simple
operation, maintainability and repairability, and easy
control.
• Excellent environmental performance: anti-pollution,
anti-noise.
INTRODUCTION
Process vessels: Vessels, tanks, and pipelines that carry,
store, or receive fluids
Pressure vessel: generally any closed vessel with
diameter > 150 mm subject to pressure difference of 0.5
bar.
Open vessel

The basic data needed by the specialist designer will be:

1. Vessel function.
2. Process materials and services.
3. Operating and design temperature and pressure.
4. Materials of construction.
5. Vessel dimensions and orientation.
6. Type of vessel heads to be used.
7. Openings and connections required.
8. Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils.
9. Type of agitator.
10. Specification of internal fittings.
PRESSURE VESSEL-DESIGN PROCEDURE
 PROCESS VESSELS

Pressure vessels:
generally any Closed Vessels with diameter >
150 mm subject to pressure difference of 0.5 bar.

Open Vessels:
It’s cheaper than covered or closed vessels of the
same volume and construction. It’s use as storage
tanks (eg. ponds), vats in batch operations where
materials maybe mixed and blended, settling
tanks, decanters, etc.
EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATION

Generally based on particular type of unit operation

such as distillation, evaporation, etc. Equipment may also
be classified according to emphasize certain common
features. Such classification leads to three groups:

 Pressure Vessel Group - has a cylindrical or spherical

vessel as the main components (withstand P-T-and other
loading conditions).
 Structural Group - consists of equipment or components
which are stationary and have to sustain only dead
loads.
 Group involving rotational motion - equipment or
components where a rotational motion is necessary to
satisfy process requirements.
 PROCESS VESSELS
Vessels in chemical processing service (according to internals):
-Those substantially without internals, and
-Those with internals.

The main functions of the first kinds, called drums or tanks,

are intermediate storage or surge of a process stream for a
limited or extended period or to provide a phase separation by
settling (eg. Cylindrical vessels with flat or curved ends,
depending on the pressure, and either horizontal or vertical).

The second category comprises the shells of equipment such as

heat exchangers, reactors, mixers, fractionators, and other
equipment whose housing can be designed and constructed
largely independently of whatever internals are necessary.
 PROCESS VESSELS

Drum vs Tanks: based on size and hold up (few minutes

for drum vs few hours for tanks).
Liquid storage tanks are provided with a certain
amount of vapor space or freeboard, commonly 15%
below 500 gal and 10% above 500 gal.

Common erection:
a. For less than 1000 gal, use vertical tanks mounted
on legs.
b. Between 1000 and 10,000 gal, use horizontal tanks
mounted on concrete foundation.
c. Beyond 10,000 gal, use vertical tanks mounted on
concrete foundations.
 PROCESS VESSELS
 Liquids with high vapor pressures and liquefied gases
are stored in elongated horizontal vessels.
 Gases under high pressure may be stored in elongated
horizontal vessels but often in spherical tanks.
 Gases at or near atmospheric pressure are stored in gas
holders with floating roofs and are sealed with a liquid
in a double wall built onto the holder.
 Liquefied gases are maintained at sub atmospheric
temperatures with external refrigeration or
autorefrigeration whereby evolved vapors are
compressed, condensed, cooled, and returned to storage.
 Liquids stored at near atmospheric pressure are
subject to breathing losses/evaporation (eg to overcome
the losses: special designed floating roof).
 PROCESS VESSELS

 Weather resistant solids such as coal or sulfur or

ores are stored in uncovered piles from which
they are retrieved with power shovels and
conveyors. Other solids are stored in silos. For
short time storage for process use, solids are
stored in bins that are of rectangular or circular
cross section with cone bottoms and hooked up to
a process with conveyors.
 STORAGE TANKS
 ABOVE-GROUND STORAGE TANKS

Cyindrical storage tanks for inflammable liquids above

and underground at or near atmospheric pressure are
subject to standards and codes of Underwriter Laboratory
(www.ul.com), or the American Petroleum Institute
(www.api.org), or regulations of the EPA. The
Underwriter Laboratory covers small tanks up to 25,000
gals. Both sets of standards are restricted to steel
construction for non corrosive service. Of course various
materials of construction for corrosive service and for
elevated temperatures and/or pressures may be
fabricated. Stainless steels and stainless-lined or other
corrosion-resistant liners are frequently used.
STORAGE TANKS
STORAGE TANKS
STORAGE TANKS
 STORAGE TANKS

 Horizontal tanks.

Above ground they are limited to 35,000 gal.

Normally they are supported on steel structures or
concrete saddles at elevations of 6 to 10 ft.

The minimum thickness of shell and heads is 3/16

in. in diameters of 48–72 in. and ¼ in. in diameters
of 73–132 in.
 STORAGE TANKS
 Vertical tanks.
Those supported above ground are made with dished or
conical bottoms. Flat bottomed tanks rest on firm foundations
of oiled sand or concrete. Supported flat bottoms usually are ¼
in. thick. Roof plates are 3/16 in. thick. Special roof
constructions that minimize vaporization losses were
mentioned earlier in this slide. The curved sides are made of
several courses of plate with thicknesses graduated to meet
requirements of strength. The data of the selected API tanks
of Table 18.3 include this information. Figure 18.11 illustrates
the oppurtenances that normally are provided for a large
storage tank.

Cylinders with curved heads are used for pressure storage at

5–230 psig. In the range of 5–10 psig, spheroids and other
constructions made up with curved surfaces, as in Figure
18.11(c) are being used in quite large sizes, often with
refrigeration to maintain sufficiently low pressures.
 STORAGE TANKS
 UNDER-GROUND STORAGE TANKS

In order to minimize hazards, storage tanks for

inflammable or toxic materials may be buried.
However, with better construction, leak detection and
fireproofing methods, more companies have elected to
store above ground (economic and leaking reasons).
 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS
VESSELS

Process design of vessels establishes the pressure and

temperature ratings, the length and diameter of the
shell, the sizes and locations of nozzles and other
openings, all internals, the material of construction,
and corrosion allowances. Most importantly
mechanical details before fabrication can proceed,
notably wall thicknesses.
For safety reasons, the design and construction of
pressure vessels are subject to legal and insurance
standards. The ASME Codes apply to vessels greater
than 6 in. dia operating above 15 psig. Section VIII
Division 1 applies to pressures below 3000 psig and is
the one most often applicable to process work. Above
3000 psig some further restrictions are imposed.
PRESSURE VESSEL CODES & STANDARDS
CODES: establish rules of safety relating to the pressure
integrity of vessels and provide guidance on design,
materials of construction, fabrication (manufacture and
workmanship), inspection and testing.
STANDARDS: no international standard for pressure vessel
design, but the most widely used standard is the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (the ASME BPV Code
Section VIII), which is the required standard in the USA,
Canada and many other countries.
 Usually follows National standards and codes of
practice.
 Where national codes are not available, the British,
European or American codes above would be used.
Info and guidance on codes: www.bsi-global.com or
www.ihs.com).
COULSON VOL. 6. 4TH EDITION (2005),
CHAPTER 13 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
 CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSURE VESSEL

When Cylindrical or Spherical pressure vessels

(including pipes, and boilers) is exposed to pressure,
the material comprising the vessel is subjected to
pressure loading, and hence stresses, from all
directions.
The normal stresses resulting from this pressure are
functions of the radius of the element under
consideration, the shape of the pressure vessel
(i.e., open ended cylinder, closed end cylinder, or
sphere) as well as the applied pressure. Two types
of analysis are commonly applied to pressure vessels;
thin wall and thick wall.
CLASSIFICATION OF PRESSURE VESSEL

For the purposes of design and analysis depends on the ratio of

the wall thickness to vessel diameter:

1. Thin-walled vessels, with a thickness ratio of less than 1 : 10

(chemical and allied industries); and

2. Thick-walled above this ratio (used for high pressures)

Pressure vessels can range:

- few cms to 50 m in diameter
- 0.25 kPa to 2000 Mpa
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND EQUATIONS

The principal stresses acting at a point in the wall of a vessel,

due to a pressure load, are shown in Figure 13.1. If the wall is
thin, the radial stress 3 will be small and can be neglected in
comparison with the other stresses, and the longitudinal and
circumferential stresses 1 and 2 can be taken as constant over
the wall thickness. In a thick wall, the magnitude of the radial
stress will be significant, and the circumferential stress will vary
across the wall.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND EQUATIONS
The state of stress at a point in a structural member under a complex
system of loading is described by the magnitude and direction of the
principal stresses. In two dimensional system:
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND EQUATIONS
The failure (theories) of a simple structural element under unidirectional
stress (tensile or compressive): related by the tensile strength of the
material, as determined in a standard tensile test, but for components
subjected to combined stresses (normal and shear stress) the position is not
so simple, and several theories of failure have been proposed. The most
suitable theory used:
The maximum shear
Maximum shear stress stress will depend on the
theory: this postulates sign of the principal
that failure will occur in stresses as well as their
a complex stress system magnitude, and in a two-
when the maximum dimensional stress
shear stress reaches the system, such as that in
value of the shear stress the wall of a thin-walled
at failure in simple pressure vessel, the
tension. For a system of In the tensile test: maximum value of the
combined stresses there shear stress may be that
are three shear stress given by putting 3 =0 in
maxima: that equations.
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: PRESSURE VESSELS

 Pressure - must be designed to withstand the maximum

pressure (under internal pressure, safety factor: commonly 10%
or 10-25 psi. The design pressure of vessels operating at 0–10psig
and 600–1000°F is 40psig. Vacuum systems are designed for 15
psig and full vacuum.
 Temperature - The design temperature at which the design
stress is evaluated should be taken as the maximum working
temperature of the material (max allowable stress will depend on
the material temperature). Between −20 and 650°F, 50°F is
added to the operating temperature, but higher margins of safety
may be advisable in critical situations. When subzero
temperatures have an adverse effect on the materials of
construction, the working temperature is reduced appropriately
for safety.
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: PRESSURE VESSELS

 Design stress - decide a value for the maximum allowable stress

(nominal design strength) that can be accepted in the material of
construction (and then apply a suitable “design stress factor” or
factor of safety, see Table 13.1 and 13.2 Coulson OR Table 18.5
Walas below).
 Materials - Pressure vessels are constructed from plain carbon
steels, low and high alloy steels, other alloys, clad plate, and
reinforced plastics. The suitability of the material for fabrication
(particularly welding) as well as the compatibility of the material
with the process environment (Contamination – eg. in textile
processes, stainless steel or aluminium is often used in preference
to carbon steel, which would be quite suitable except that any slight
rusting will mark the textiles (iron staining). Stainless steel is
widely used, and the surfaces, inside and out, are given a high
finish by abrasive blasting and mechanical polishing).
 Design loads - A structure must be designed to resist gross plastic
deformation and collapse under all the conditions of loading.
ALLOWABLE DESIGN STRESS- THIS TABLE MAY BE USED FOR
THE PURPOSE OF PRELIMINARY DESIGN
Design stress- This table may be used for the purpose of preliminary design
(should be consulted for the values to be used for detailed vessel design.
From Knovel: Chemical Engineering Design-SI Edition (5th edition)
DESIGN STRESS
Factor of safety taken after determining a value for the maximum allowable
stress (nominal design strength)
 WELDED JOINT EFFICIENCY (E)
Typical values:

1.0 implies that the joint is equally as strong. The use of lower joint
factors in design, though saving costs on radiography, will result in a
thicker, heavier, vessel, and the designer must balance any cost savings
on inspection and fabrication against the increased cost of materials.
The national codes and standards divide vessel construction into
different categories, depending on the amount of non-destructive testing
required. The higher categories require 100 % radiography of the welds,
and allow the use of highest values for the weld joint factors. For
stainless, the allowable design stress is around 80 per cent of that for the
other categories.
 SHELLS AND HEADS
Most process vessels are made up
from shells of revolution: cylindrical
and conical sections, and
hemispherical, ellipsoidal and
torispherical heads.

The walls of thin vessels can be

considered to be “membranes”;
supporting loads without significant
bending or shear stresses; similar to
the walls of a balloon.

The analysis of the membrane

stresses induced in shells of
revolution by internal pressure gives
a basis for determining the
minimum wall thickness
required for vessel shells. The
actual thickness required will also
depend on the stresses arising from
the other loads to which the vessel is
subjected.
METHODS FOR SUPPORTING VESSEL
COMMON TYPE OF HEADS
HEAD/CLOSURES

The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various

shapes. The principal types used are (hemispherical,
ellipsoidal and torispherical heads are collectively referred to
as domed heads, whereas torispherical heads are often
referred to as dished ends):

1. Flat plates and formed flat heads: used as covers for

manways, and as the channel covers of heat exchangers.
‘flange-only’ heads are the cheapest type of formed head to
manufacture, but their use is limited to low-pressure and
small-diameter vessels.
2. Torispherical heads (dished ends) are the most
commonly used end closure for vessels up to operating
pressures of 15 bar. They can be used for higher pressures,
but above 10 bar their cost should be compared with that of
an equivalent ellipsoidal head.
HEAD AND CLOSURES

3. Ellipsoidal heads; above 15 bar an ellipsoidal head will

usually prove to be the most economical closure to use.
4. Hemispherical heads; the strongest shape, capable of
resisting about twice the pressure of a torispherical head of
the same thickness. The cost of forming a hemispherical
head will, however, be higher than that for a shallow
torispherical head. Hemispherical heads are used for high
pressures.
OTHER DATA FOR SHELLS AND HEADS
Flat Plates: used as covers for manholes, as blind flanges, and for the
ends of small diameter and low-pressure vessels.

a-Clamped Edges
b-Simply Supported
General equation for Flat Plates can be written in the form:

𝑃
𝑡 = 𝐶𝐷
𝑓
f=the maximum alllowable stress (design stress);
D=the effective plate diameter;)
C= a constant, which depends on the edge support

• Taking Poisson’s ratio as 0.3, a typical value for steels, then if the edge can
be taken as completely rigid, C = 0.43, and if it is essentially free to rotate,
C = 0.56.
MATERIAL SELECTION – GENERAL GUIDELINE

1. Corrosion and heat resistance.

2. Mechanical properties (along with no. 1 is the basis for selection):

a Strength: tensile strength (the maximum stress that the
material will withstand, measured by a standard tensile test).
b Stiffness: elastic modulus/Young’s modulus (is the ability to
resist bending and buckling).
c Toughness: fracture resistance (is associated with tensile
strength, and is a measure of the material’s resistance to crack
propagation).
d Hardness: wear resistance(as measured in a standard test, is an
indication of a material’s ability to resist wear).
e Fatigue resistance (is likely to occur in equipment subject to
cyclic loading; for example, rotating equipment, such as pumps
and compressors, and equipment subjected to pressure cycling).
f Creep resistance (is the gradual extension of a material under a
steady tensile stress, over a prolonged period of time)
3. Ease of fabrication how the product is to be made is a third level
consideration. This includes forging, machining, forming, welding,
etc (see Table 7.1).

4. Total cost (in considering total cost, it is appropriate to consider not

only material and production costs, but the life cycle cost including
the cost-saving benefits of a maintenance-free product having a
long life expectancy).
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

1. Iron and steel - low carbon steel (mild steel) is the most commonly
used engineering material. It is cheap; available in a wide range of
standard forms and sizes; and can be easily worked and welded. It has
good tensile strength and ductility, however are not resistant to
corrosion.
2. Stainless steel - the most frequently used corrosion resistant
materials (corrosion resistance: the chromium content must be >12
%). Nickel is added to improve the corrosion resistance.
 Ferritic: 13-20 per cent Cr, < 0.1 % C, with no nickel
 Austenitic: 18-20 per cent Cr, > 7 % Ni (see next table)
 Martensitic: 12-10 per cent Cr, 0.2 to 0.4 % C, up to 2 % N
3. High alloy content stainless steels - Super austenitic, high
nickel stainless steels, containing between 29 to 30 % nickel and 20 %
chromium, have a good resistance to acids and acid chlorides. They
are more expensive than the lower alloy content, 300 series, of
austenitic stainless steels. Read 7.8 Coulson for nickel, monel, inconel,
the hastelloys, copper and copper alloys, aluminium and its alloys,
lead, titanium, tantalum, etc.
4. Read also plastics and ceramic materials as being
increasingly used for materials construction.
Austenitic
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Increasing corrosion resistance:

CORROSION ALLOWANCE AND MATERIAL COST

c = corrosion allowance (the

additional thickness of metal added
to allow for material lost by corrosion
and erosion, or scaling (see Chapter
7 Coulson)

For carbon and low-alloy steels,

where severe corrosion is not
expected, a minimum
allowance of 2.0 mm should be
used; where more severe
conditions are anticipated this
should be increased to 4.0 mm.
Most design codes and
standards specify a minimum
allowance of 1.0 mm. Materials with a relatively high
design stress, such as stainless
and low alloy steels, can be used
more efficiently than carbon steel.
DESIGN LOADS
Major loads
1. Design pressure: including any significant static head of liquid.
2. Maximum weight of the vessel and contents, under operating conditions.
3. Maximum weight of the vessel and contents under the hydraulic test
conditions.
4. Wind loads.
5. Earthquake (seismic) loads.
6. Loads supported by, or reacting on, the vessel.

Subsidiary/secondary loads
1. Local stresses caused by supports, internal structures and connecting pipes.
2. Shock loads caused by water hammer, or by surging of the vessel contents.
3. Bending moments caused by eccentricity of the centre of the working pressure
relative to the neutral axis of the vessel.
4. Stresses due to temperature differences and differences in the coefficient
expansion of materials.
5. Loads caused by fluctuations in temperature and pressure.
APPROXIMATE EQUATIONS IN TABLE 18.4
DESIGN OF THIN WALLED VESSEL UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE

Cylinder Cone Sphere Ellipsoid Torispherical

APPROXIMATE EQUATIONS-CYLINDRICAL
Cylindrical: circumferential stress (longitudinal joint) is
The minimum thickness the controlling one
required to resist internal
pressure for a cylindrical shell British Standard PD 5500: ASME Standard:
(from previous equation):
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= 𝑡=
2𝑓𝐸 − 𝑃𝑖 2𝑓𝐸 − 1.2𝑃𝑖

Cylindrical: longitudinal stress (circumferential joint)

𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡=
4𝑓𝐸 + 0.8𝑃𝑖

APPROXIMATE EQUATIONS-SPHERE
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡=
4𝑓𝐸 − 0.4𝑃𝑖

t=thickness (mm); Pi=internal pressure (kPa); Di=internal diameter (mm);

f=allowable stress, also written as S (kPa); E=welded joint factor
Any consistent set of units can be used for these equations.

Not including corrosion allowance yet (+ c).

APPROXIMATE EQUATIONS-CYLINDRICAL
In ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code, Section VIII
Division 1
In ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code Section III,
Division 1
For cylindrical thin
walled-Circumferential
stress (longitudinal
joint)

Longitudinal stress
(circumferential
joint)

t=thickness (mm); P=pressure (kPa); R=inner radius of shell (mm);

S(also written as f)=allowable stress (kPa); E=joint efficiency

Not including corrosion allowance yet (+ c).

DESIGN OF FLAT ENDS (SEE PREVIOUS SECTION): ASME

General equation for flat plates can be written in the form:

𝑃
𝑡 = 𝐶𝑝 𝐷𝑒
𝑓
Cp=a design constant, dependent on the edge constraint
De=nominal plate diameter
F =maximum alllowable stress

Based on Fig. 13.9:

• (a) Flanged-only end: C=0.17 if corner radius is not more than 3t, otherwise C=0.1;
De is equal to Di.
• (b, c) Plates welded to the end of the shell with a fillet weld: angle of fillet 45 and
weld depth 70% of the thickness of the shell, C=0.33 t/ts, where ts is the shell
thickness; De=Di.
• (d) Bolted cover with a full-face gasket: C=0.25 and De is the bolt circle diameter
(the diameter of a circle connecting the centres of the bolt holes).
• (e) Bolted end cover with a narrow-face gasket: C=0.3 and De should be taken as
the mean diameter of the gasket.
DESIGN OF DOMED HEADS: ASME

Hemispherical heads: is the Conical sections (reducers) and end

same equation as for a spherical closures: used to make a gradual reduction in
shell: diameter from one cylindrical section to
𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 another of smaller diameter. Conical ends are
𝑡= used to facilitate the smooth flow and removal
4𝑓𝐸 − 0.4𝑃𝑖
of solids from process equipment, such as
hoppers, spray-dryers and crystallizers.
Ellipsoidal heads

𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡=
2𝑓𝐸 − 0.2𝑃𝑖
𝑡= **
2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼(𝑓𝐸 − 0.6𝑃𝑖 )

Torispherical heads Dc is the diameter of the cone at the point

α=half the cone apex angle
0.885𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑐
𝑡=
𝑓𝐸 − 0.1𝑃𝑖
𝐶𝑐 𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡= ***
where Rc is the crown radius 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼(𝑓𝐸 − 0.6𝑃𝑖 )

Coulson
DESIGN OF DOMED HEADS/ENDS: ASME

OR: For Conical section (from Brownell & Young)

If α is not greater than 300 then Eq. ** is used

If α exceeds ∆ (determined from Table 13.3),

then equation *** is used to calculate
compression ring area to account for more
stress:

(in2)