Fluid Mechanics

By
Ir. H. Nefli Yusuf, M.Eng
 What is Fluid Mechanics
• Fluid mechanics is a branch of continuous
mechanics which deals with a relationship
between forces, motions, and static conditions
in continuous material. This study area deals
with many and diversified problems such as
surface tension, fluid statics, flow in enclose
bodies, or flow round bodies (solid or
otherwise), flow stability, etc.
 Cont. wfm
• Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids (gases
and liquids) either in motion (fluid dynamics)
or at rest (fluid statics) and the subsequent
effects of the fluid upon the boundaries,
which may be either solid surfaces or
interfaces with other fluids.
• Fluid Mechanics encompasses the study of all
types of fluids under static, kinematic and
dynamic conditions.
 WHAT IS FLUID
• A fluid is defined as a material which will
continue to deform with the application of a
shear force.
• A fluid is a substance that cannot maintain its
own shape but takes the shape of its
container. Liquid and gases are both classified
as fluids.
 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• Viscosity causes resistance to flow.
• Surface tension leads to capillary effects.
• Bulk modulus is involved in the propagation of
disturbances like sound waves in fluids.
• Vapour pressure can cause flow disturbances
due to evaporation at locations of low
pressure.
COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLUIDS
• Compressible fluid - the density of a fluid
varies significantly due to moderate changes
in pressure or temperature. Generally gases
and vapours under normal conditions can be
classified as compressible fluids.
• Incompressible fluid - the change in density of
a fluid is small due to changes in temperature
and or pressure. liquids are classified under
this category.
 IDEAL AND REAL FLUIDS
• Ideal Fluids – are fluids that have no viscosity,
incompressible, no resistance to shear, no
eddy currents and no friction between moving
surfaces.
• Real Fluids – are fluids that are compressible,
non-uniform velocity distributions and have
friction and turbulence in flow.
 REAL FLUIDS
• Newtonian Fluids (1) – is a viscous real fluid and whose shear
stresses are a linear function of the fluid strain (Ex. Air, water, gases,
steam, etc.)
• Newtonian Fluids (2) - a linear relationship exists between the
magnitude of the applied shear stress and the resulting rate of
deformation.

• Non-Newtonian Fluids (1) – are real fluids like pastes, gels,

electrolyte solutions, slurries, etc.
• Non Newtonian Fluids (2) - classified as simple non Newtonian,
ideal plastic and shear thinning, shear thickening and real plastic
fluids. In non Newtonian fluids the viscosity will vary with variation
in the rate ofdeformation.
 PRIMARY THERMODYNAMIC
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• Pressure (p) - is the (compression) stress at a
point in a static fluid.
• Temperature (T) – is a measure of the internal
energy level of a fluid.
• Density (r) - is its mass per unit volume.
• Specific weight (g) - is its weight per unit volume.
• Specific gravity (SG) - is the ratio of a fluid density
to a standard reference fluid, water (for liquids),
and air (for gases).
 VISCOSITY
• Viscosity (1) - is that property of a real fluid by virtue of which it
offers resistance to shear force.
• Viscosity (2) – is the fluid resistance to flow or the property of fluid
to resist shear deformation.
• Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear force to be applied
for a deformation rate of (dV/dy) over an area A is given by, F =μ
A(dV dy)
• Where:
– F is the applied force in N,
– A is area in m2, dV/dy is the velocity gradient (or rate of deformation),
– 1/s, perpendicular to flow direction, here assumed linear, and μ is the
proportionality constant defined as the
– dynamic or absolute viscosity of the fluid. S
– shear Stress = F A =μ (dV dy),
– Shear Strain = dV dy = F (μ A)
 Cont. visc
• Viscosity Index – is the rate at which viscosity changes with
temperature.
• Viscosimeter – an instrument, consisting of standard
orifice, used for measuring viscosity (in SSU and SSF).
• Absolute (Dynamic) Viscosity – is the viscosity determined
by direct measurement of shear resistance (in Poise or
centiPoise.) Units are 1 reyn = 1 lb-sec/in2, 1 Poise = 1
dyne-sec/cm2 = 0.1 Pa-sec. 1 centiPoise (cP) = 0.01 Poise.
• Kinematic Viscosity – it the absolute viscosity of a fluid
divided by the density (in Stoke or centiStoke.) Units are
ft2/s, m2/s, 1 stoke = 1 cm2/sec. = 0.0001 m2/sec. 1
centiStoke (cSt) = 0.01 Stoke.
 REYNOLDS NUMBER
• Reynolds number – is a dimensionless number which is the
ratio of the forces of inertia to viscous forces of the fluids. It
is the primary parameter correlating the viscous behaviour
of all newtonian fluids.

• Where:
– Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
– D = inside diameter, m
Laminar flow: Re<2000
– V = velocity, m/s Transition flow: 2000-4000
– n = kinematic viscosity, m2/s Turbulent flow:>4000
– μ = absolute viscosity, Pa-sec
 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARY
ACTION
• Surface Tension – is the membrane formed on
the free surface of the fluid which is due to
cohesive forces. The reason why insects were
able to sit on water is due to surface tension.
The amount of surface tension decreases as
the temperature increases.
• Capillary Action – this is done through the
behaviour of surface tension between the
liquid and a vertical solid surface.
 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK
MODULUS
• Compressibility, b- the measure of the change in
volume of a substance when a pressure is exerted on
the substance.

• Where:
– DV = change in volume
– Vo = original volume
– DP = change in pressure
• Bulk modulus, EB - is defined as the ratio of the change
in pressure to the rate of change of volume due to the
change in pressure. It is the inverse of compressibility.
 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
• Hydrostatic Pressure – is the pressure of fluid exerted on the walls of the
container.

• Pressure = Weight Density x Height, p =g h = rgh

• Pressure Head, h= p/ g= p /gr
• Where:
– p = hydrostatic pressure (gage pressure)
– h = height of liquid (pressure head)
– r = Density of liquid
 MANOMETER
• Manometer is a device to measure pressure or
mostly difference in pressure using a column of
liquid to balance the pressure.

• p A− p B = (p A− p1 ) +(p1 − p2) + (p2 − p3) +(p3 − pB)

• p − p = −g 1(zA − z1) − g 2(z1 − z2 )− g 3(z2 − z3) − g 4 (z3 − zB)
 BUOYANCY
• Buoyancy – the tendency of a body to float when submerged in a fluid.
• Two Archimedes Law of Buoyancy
1. A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical buoyant force equal
to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
2. A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which it floats.

W = FB = rV
Where:
FB = buoyant force
W = weight of the body
V = volume of the body submerged or
volume of the liquid displaced
r = density of the liquid
 BASIC SCIENTIFIC LAWS USED IN THE
ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
1. Law of conservation of mass: This law when applied to a control volume states that
the net mass flow through the volume will equal the mass stored or removed from
the volume. Under conditions of steady flow this will mean that the mass leaving
the control volume should be equal to the mass entering the volume. The
determination of flow velocity for a specified mass flow rate and flow area is based
on the continuity equation derived on the basis of this law.
2. Newton’s laws of motion: These are basic to any force analysis under various
conditions of flow. The resultant force is calculated using the condition that it
equals the rate of change of momentum. The reaction on surfaces are calculated on
the basis of these laws. Momentum equation for flow is derived based on these
laws.
3. Law of conservation of energy: Considering a control volume the law can be stated
as “the energy flow into the volume will equal the energy flow out of the volume
under steady conditions”. This also leads to the situation that the total energy of a
fluid element in a steady flow field is conserved. This is the basis for the derivation
of Euler and Bernoulli equations for fluid flow.
4. Thermodynamic laws: are applied in the study of flow of compressible fluids.
• FLOW RATES
– Volume flow rate (Q) – of a fluid is a measure of the volume
flow of fluids passing through a point per unit time.
– Mass flow rate (m) – of a fluid is a measure of the mass flow of
fluid passing through a point per unit time.
• CONTINUITY EQUATION
– Continuity Equation - This equation is used to calculate the area,
or velocity in one dimensional varying area flow, like flow in a
nozzle or venturi.
• m=r1Q1 =r2Q2
• r1A1V1 =r2A2V2
– For incompressible flow. r =r1 =r2
• Q =Q1 =Q2
• A1V1 = A2V2
• VELOCITY HEAD, Torricelli’s Theorem:
• “The velocity of a liquid which discharge under a head is equal to the velocity of a
body which falls in the same head”.
Where:
h = velocity head
V = velocity of the liquid

• FRICTION HEAD LOSS IN PIPES, Darcy-Weisbach Equation

Where:
hf = velocity head, m or ft
V = velocity of the liquid, m/s or ft/sec
L = length of pipe, m or ft
D = internal diameter, m or ft
f = coefficient of friction, friction factor (Darcy)
g = 9.81 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/sec2
• COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION, f
• 1. Coefficient of friction for laminar flow (Re <
2300).
• 2. Coefficient of friction for turbulent flow
Colebrook equation, turbulent flow only (Re >
2300)
• HYDRAULIC DIAMETER
• For flow in non-circular ducts or ducts for which the flow does not
fill the entire cross-section, we can definethe hydraulic diameter

• BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
• Bernoulli’s equation – is a general energy equation that is used for
solving fluid flows. It relates elevation head, pressure head and
velocity head. Some conditions of using Bernoulli’s equation: (1) No
fluid friction, (2) fluid is incompressible, and (3) negligible changes
in thermal energy. Bernoulli’s theorem – “ Neglecting friction, the
sum of the pressure head, velocity head and elevation head of a
point is equal to the sum of the pressure head, velocity head and
elevation head of another point”.
• VENTURI, NOZZLE AND ORIFICE METERS
• Venturi, Nozzle and Orifice meters are the three obstruction type
meters commonly used for the measurement of flow through pipes.
• Flow Rate:

• This equation needs a modifying coefficient as viscous effects and

boundary roughness as well as the velocity of approach factor that
depend on the diameter ratio have been neglected. The coefficient
is defined by, actual theoretical d Q =Q ×Cd, where Cd is the
coefficient of discharge. Cd for venturi meters is in the range 0.95 to
0.98. Cd for flow nozzle is in the range 0.7 to 0.9 depending on
diameter ratio and Reynolds number to some extent. For orifice,
The range for coefficient of discharge is 0.6 to 0.65.
 Fluid statics
• Fluid mechanics is just ΣF = d(mv/dt)
(Newton’s 2nd Law, the sum of the forces is
equal to the rate of change of momentum)
applied to a fluid.
• Hydrostatic pressure: when ΣF = 0. If a fluid is
not moving at all, as in a glass of water, then
the fluid is static and has only a hydrostatic
pressure. P(z) = P(0) - ρgz
 Cont. fs
• Buoyancy
• According to Archimedes’ principle, an object of
volume V placed in a liquid of density ρ will exert a
buoyant force equal the weight of the fluid displaced =
ρfgV. The net force on the object is the difference
between this Archimedean (buoyant) force and the
weight of the object = ρogV, where ρo is the average
density of the object (just total mass/total volume).
Thus the net force F acting on the object is
F = (ρf - ρo)gV
– where the sign convention is such that the force is positive
(directed upward) when the object density is less than the
fluid density (i.e., the object floats upward).
 Equations of fluid motion
• Bernoulli’s equation: One of the most common problems in
fluid flows is to determine the relationship between velocity,
pressure and elevation of a flowing fluid in a pipe or other
duct.
– (Power needed to push fluid into the tube inlet and power
extracted at the tube outlet) + (power associated with the
rate of change of kinetic energy of the fluid as it passes
through the tube) + (power associated with gravitational
potential of fluid) = constant