ARGUMENTS

Methods of Philosophizing
 ANALYZE THESE
All students who go to St. Benilde College of Arts and Design are good
artists,
Enrico is from St. Benilde College of Arts and Design
Enrico is therefore a good artist.

It is alright to copy during examinations because everybody is doing it

already

I will not go to church because I know that the priest is not a good
person
 ARGUMENTS
•They take the form of statements
that are either claims of facts and
are phrased in such a way that
they seem reasonable.
 FALLACIES
• Arguments that are based on faulty
reasoning.
• Some of these arguments may be
intentional, as the person making the
claim is desperate to convince you to
accept his or her argument.
 FALLACIES
Fallacy Characteristics Example
Ad hominem Attacking the person “Of course he believes that
presenting the argument the government is flawed, he
instead of the argument itself is a rebel and a Communist!”
Appeal to force Using the threat of force or an “If this peace agreement will
undesirable event to advance not be signed by the
an argument government, then we will
have no recourse but to go to
war.”
Appeal to emotion Using emotions such as pity or “All these charges are
sympathy baseless; this is just plain
harassment – can’t you see
how this is affecting my
family?”

Fallacy Characteristics
Appeal to popular The idea is presented as
acceptable because a lot of
people accept it
Appeal to tradition The idea is acceptable
because it has been true for a
long time
Begging the question Assuming the thing or idea to
be proven is true; also known
as “circular argument”
FALLACIES
Examples
“Every boy your age already
has a girlfriend, you should go
find one!”
“Marriage should be between
a man and a woman. It has
been so for a long time in this
country; it should remain so
today and in the future.”
“I have a right to free speech,
therefore you cannot stop me
from talking.”

Fallacy Characteristics
Cause-and-effect Assuming a “cause-and-
effect” relationships between
unrelated events
Fallacy of composition Assuming that what is true of a “These cases of robbery in this
part is true for the whole
Fallacy of division Assuming that what is true for
the whole is true for its parts
FALLACIES
Example
“I have the right to free
speech, therefore you cannot
stop me from talking”
district have convinced me
that the city has become a
den of thieves and criminals”
“You come from a family of
doctors and intellectuals!
Surely you can do better in this
course!”
 BIAS
• Personal views of the person presenting it
• They are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but
refer to tendencies or influences which affect
the views of people
• These cannot be avoided in any discussion or
debate

Bias Characteristics
Correspondence bias or Tendency to judge a person’s
attribution effect personality by his or her
actions, without regard for
external factors or influences
Confirmation bias Tendency to look for and
readily accept information
which fits one’s own beliefs or
views and to reject ideas or
views that go against it
Framing Focusing on a certain aspect
of a problem while ignoring
other aspects
BIAS
Example
“These soldiers who fought in
the war are all bloodthirsty
murderers!”
“How can I accept his view
that there is no God? I am a
Christian!”
“Preliminary evidence has still
not pointed out the actual
cause of the plane crash, but
investigators are currently
focusing on the possibility of
pilot error”

Bias Characteristics
Hindsight The tendency to see past
events as predictable, or to
ascribe a pattern to historical
events
Conflict of interest A person or group is
connected to or has a vested
interest in the issue being
discusses
Cultural bias Analyzing an event or issue
based on one’s cultural
standards
BIAS
Example
“Magellan’s assault on
Mactan Island was a
foolhardy venture, made by
an overconfident, careless
man who underestimated the
valor of the native Filipinos”
“As daughter of the accused, I
believe I have the right to
express my opinion on the
issue of his alleged corrupt
practices.”
“I do not agree with this
Western practice of placing
aged parents in retirement
homes. We Filipinos take care
of our family members.”
 HOW CAN AN UNDERSTANDING OF
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRUTH AND
OPINION LEAD US TO WISDOM?
• An understanding of opinions and facts and the means to distinguish one
from the other can further improve our understanding and appreciation of
varied views and ideas.
• The ability to determine truth goes hand in hand with the holistic perspective
and enables us to make wiser decisions, especially in choosing the ideas and
views which we find acceptable.
• An individual cannot live his or her life just agreeing with everybody he or she
meets.
• A critical mind aided by philosophy can help us form our own personal point
of view that can guide us in making decisions and actions when faced with
a problem.