Researching Psychology

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The Scientific Method
Researching
Psychology
Types of Research Studies
Methods of Collecting Data
Analyzing and Interpreting Data
Ethical Considerations in Research
Researching Psychology
Bias in Psychological Research
Researching
Psychology
(continued)
Researching Psychology > The Scientific Method

• Psychology and the Scientific Method: From Theory to Conclusion
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/researching-psychology-2/the-scientific-method-26/
Researching Psychology > Types of Research Studies
Types of Research Studies

• Descriptive Research
• Correlational Research
• Experimental Research
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/researching-psychology-2/types-of-research-studies-27/
Researching Psychology > Methods of Collecting Data
Methods of Collecting Data

• Observation
• Case Studies
• Surveys and Interviews
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/researching-psychology-2/methods-of-collecting-data-28/
Researching Psychology > Analyzing and Interpreting Data
Analyzing and Interpreting Data

• Basic Descriptive Statistics
• Basic Inferential Statistics
• Accuracy vs. Precision
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/researching-psychology-2/analyzing-and-interpreting-data-30/
Researching Psychology > Ethical Considerations in Research
Ethical Considerations in Research

• Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
• Ethical Guidelines for Animal Research
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/researching-psychology-2/ethical-considerations-in-research-29/
Researching Psychology > Bias in Psychological Research
Bias in Psychological Research

• Biases in Experimental Design: Validity, Reliability, and Other Issues
• Heuristics and Cognitive Biases
www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/researching-psychology-2/bias-in-psychological-research-407/
Appendix
Key terms
• Accuracy The closeness of a measurement of a quantity to that quantity's true value.
• apophenia The perception of or belief in connectedness among unrelated phenomena.
• bias An inclination, predisposition, or prejudice toward something.
• case study Research performed in detail on a single individual, group, incident or community, as opposed to, for instance, a
sample of the whole population.
• case study Research performed in detail on a single individual, group, incident, or community, as opposed to (for example) a
sample of the whole population.
• causation The act by which an effect is produced; in psychological research, the assumption that one variable leads to another.
• dependent variable The aspect or subject of an experiment that is influenced by the manipulated aspect; an outcome measured
to see the effectiveness of the treatment.
• ethical Of or relating to the accepted principles of right and wrong, especially those of some organization or profession.
• ethical Of, or relating to, the accepted principles of right and wrong especially those of some organization or profession.
• external validity In research, whether or not study findings can be generalized to real-world scenarios.
• external validity In research, whether or not study findings can be generalized to real world scenarios.
• heuristic Experience-based techniques for problem solving, learning, and discovery that give a solution which is not guaranteed
to be optimal.
• hypothesis A tentative conjecture explaining an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further
observation and/or experimentation.
• independent variable The variable that is changed or manipulated in a series of experiments.
• law of diminishing returns The tendency for a continuing effort toward a particular goal to decline in efficacy after a certain
amount of success has been achieved.
• natural science Sciences concerned with predicting and describing natural phenomena (e.g., biology, physics, or chemistry),
using systematic data collection and performing controlled experiments.
• negative correlation A relationship between two variables such that as one increases the other decreases. On a graph, a
negative correlation will have a negative slope.
• observational research Research focusing on the observation of behavior outside of a laboratory setting.
• ordinal The position at which a number appears in a sequence, such as first, second, or third.
• parameter A numerical value that gives information about an entire population, where a population is a complete group of
individuals or things.
• pareidolia The tendency to interpret a vague stimulus as something known to the observer, such as interpreting marks on Mars
as canals, seeing shapes in clouds, or hearing hidden messages in reversed music.
• population A complete group of individuals or things that research aims to describe.
• positive correlation A relationship between two variables such that as one increases or decreases the other does the same. On
a graph, a positive correlation will have a positive slope.
• Precision The degree to which multiple measurements of the same thing show the same or similar results each time.
• psychometric test The measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and educational measurements.
• random assignment Random assignment of subjects to experimental and control conditions is a process used to evenly
distribute the individual qualities of the participants across the conditions.
• random sample A smaller subset of a population of individuals or things in which every characteristic present in the population
has an equal chance of being represented.
• ratio A number representing a comparison of two quantities, usually represented as a fraction, percentage, or decimal.
• reliability The overall consistency of a measure.
• reliability The degree to which a measure is likely to yield consistent results each time it is used.
• sample A smaller subset of a population of individuals or things.
• scientific method A method of discovering knowledge about the natural world based on making falsifiable predictions
(hypotheses), testing them empirically, and developing peer-reviewed theories that best explain the known data.
• social science Sciences concerned with the social behavior of individuals and groups (e.g., sociology, anthropology, or
psychology) and that are often considered more subjective due to the focus of study.
• standard deviation A measure of how spread out data values are around the mean, mathematically defined as the square root
of the variance.
• statistics Numerical values that give information about a sample of individuals or things, where the sample is a smaller subset
of a population of interest.
• survey A method for collecting qualitative and quantitative information about individuals in a population.
• validity The degree to which a measure is actually assessing the concept it was designed to measure.
Histogram
This histogram displays normally distributed data (it is shaped like a symmetrical bell, meaning the median is roughly equal to the mean). Each column
represents the number of data points of observations within that interval, or "bin." For example, the first two intervals, or "bins," are on the x-axis, and
frequencies are on the y-axis.
Wikipedia. "900px-Cumulative_vs_normal_histogram.svg.png." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histogram View on Boundless.com
Skewness
When the mean, median, and mode are unequal, the normal curve can become skewed in either a negative or positive direction depending on their
values in relation to each other. In each of the above panels, the dotted line shows how a normal distribution would be shaped (if the mean and median
were equal). In the left panel, showing negative skew, the mean is less than the median; in the right panel, showing positive skew, the mean is greater
than the median.
Wikibooks. "Statistics Ground Zero/Descriptive Statistics." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Statistics_Ground_Zero/Descriptive_Statistics%23Shape View
on Boundless.com
Accuracy vs. precision

Accurate hits fall close to the bullseye, as shown in dart boards C and D. Precise hits are characterized by the close clustering of consistent hits, shown
in dart boards B and D.
Anna Hartley. "Original figure by Anna Hartley. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." CC BY-SA 3.0 View on Boundless.com
Survey research books

While survey research is one of the most common types of psychological study, it can be difficult to create a survey that is free of bias and that reliably
measures the factors it aims to capture. A researcher must have a strong understanding of the basics before they can create a valid survey from scratch.
Wikipedia. "Survey Research Books." Public domain http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Survey_Research_Books.jpg View on Boundless.com
Right or wrong decision

Ethical guidelines help researchers make the right decisions, such as getting informed consent from human subjects.
Wikispaces. "Webquest - The decision to drop the bomb - home." CC BY-SA http://myfirstwiki1546789.wikispaces.com/ View on Boundless.com
Laboratory Observation
Laboratory observation can feel artificial to participants and influence their behavior. Observation in a natural setting allows researchers to document
behavior without this influence.
Wikipedia. "University of Wisconsin - Eau Claire - Laboratory School - Park School - Observation room alongside classroom with one-way mirror." CC BY-SA
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:University_of_Wisconsin_-_Eau_Claire_-_Laboratory_School_-_Park_School_-
Boxplot
A boxplot has marks to indicate the upper and lower extreme, as well as the upper and lower quartile and median of the data.
Data Viz Catalogue. "box_plot.png." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.datavizcatalogue.com/methods/box_plot.html#.Vb5XazBViko View on Boundless.com
Descriptive Research
While descriptive research cannot be generalized beyond the specific object of study, it can help psychologists gain more information about a topic, and
formulate hypotheses for future experiments.
Wikimedia. "Researchers review documents." Public domain http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Researchers_review_documents.jpg View on Boundless.com
Normal distribution
The normal, or Gaussian, distribution of values (also known as the bell curve). This occurs when the mean, median, and mode are equivalent, or
approximately equivalent.
Wikimedia. "standard-deviation-diagram.svg." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Standard_deviation_diagram.svg View on Boundless.com
Screenshot 2015-07-26 11.46.24.png

Effects of receiving a cookie as a reward (independent variable) on time taken to complete task (dependent variable). As shown in the figure, participants
who received a cookie took much less time to complete the task than participants who did not receive a cookie.
Anna Hartley. "Original figure by Anna Hartley. Licensed CC BY-SA 4.0." CC BY-SA 3.0 View on Boundless.com
Animal Testing by the Numbers

The proportion of animals used in research testing in Europe in 2005. Mice and rats were the most frequently used animals.
Wikipedia. "Animal testing." GNU FDL http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing View on Boundless.com
Correlations of varying directions and strengths

Panels (a) and (b) show the difference between strong and weak positive linear patterns—the strong pattern more closely resembles a straight line. The
same is true for panels (c) and (d)—the strong negative linear pattern more closely resembles a straight line than does the weak negative pattern.
Finally, comparing panels (a) and (c) shows the difference between positive and negative linear patterns—a positive linear pattern slopes up (both
variables increase at the same time), and a negative linear pattern slopes down (one variable decreases while the other increases).
OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Introductory Statistics. July 20, 2015." CC BY-SA 4.0 http://cnx.org/contents/30189442-6998-4686-ac05-
ed152b91b9de@17.44 View on Boundless.com
Pareidolia
Our minds trick us into believing something exists when it doesn't. It tricks us into seeing a pattern or likeness, in something that is relatively
meaningless. People tend to see a face raising an eyebrow when they look at this intercom system.
Flickr. "Pareidolia | Flickr - Photo Sharing!." CC BY http://www.flickr.com/photos/iamliam/5081534257/ View on Boundless.com

The scientific method is a process for gathering data and processing information. It provides well-defined steps to standardize how scientific knowledge
is gathered through a logical, rational problem-solving method. This diagram shows the steps of the scientific method, which are listed below.
OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, The Science of Biology. October 21, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m44387/latest/#fig-ch01_01_05 View on
Boundless.com

The scientific method is the process by which new scientific knowledge is gained and verified. First you must identify a question and, after some
preliminary research, form a hypothesis to answer that question. After designing an experiment to test the hypothesis and collecting data from the
experiment, a scientist will draw a conclusion. The conclusion will either support the hypothesis or refute it. The scientist will then either reformulate the
hypothesis or build upon the original hypothesis. The scientific method cannot prove a hypothesis, only support or refute it.
Wikimedia. "The Scientific Method." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Scientific_Method.png View on Boundless.com
Stem-and-leaf plot
"Leading numbers" are shown in the "stem" (the column on the left-hand side), and "trailing numbers" are shown in the "leaves" (the lists on the right-
hand side). In this example, the first row represents the numbers 1, 1, 2, 2, etc.; the second row represents the numbers 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 13, etc.; and
so on.
Soft Schools. "stem_leaf_plant_img_1.jpg." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.softschools.com/math/topics/stem_and_leaf_plot/ View on Boundless.com
Scales: Right or Wrong

Ethical guidelines present a way for a researcher to balance moral issues when conducting research or experiments on human subjects.
Wikimedia. "Brass scales with cupped trays." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brass_scales_with_cupped_trays.png View on Boundless.com
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Methods of Collecting Data

Analyzing and Interpreting Data

Ethical Considerations in Research

The Scientific Method

Types of Research Studies

Methods of Collecting Data

Analyzing and Interpreting Data

Ethical Considerations in Research

Bias in Psychological Research

Accuracy vs. precision

Survey research books

Right or wrong decision

Screenshot 2015-07-26 11.46.24.png

Animal Testing by the Numbers

Correlations of varying directions and strengths

The Scientific Method

The Scientific Method

Scales: Right or Wrong

• Wikipedia. "psychometric test." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/psychometric%20test

• Wikipedia. "The Three Rs (animals)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Three_Rs_(animals)

• Wikibooks. "Statistics Ground Zero/Descriptive Statistics." CC BY-SA 3.0

• Wiktionary. "pareidolia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pareidolia

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