Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya

Subject:- Power System

Modelling (EE302)

Prepared by:

1:- 15EE017 Bhavesh Prajapati

2:- 15EE018 MohmedMaaeez Malek
3:- 15EE019 Jignesh Koradiya
4:- 15EE020 Sameer Rathva
 Long Transmission Line
• Solution of the differential Equations
• Hyperbolic form of the differential
Equation
• Interpretation of the Equations
• The line constants are uniformly distributed over the entire length of lineas is
actually the case.
• The resistance and the inductive reactance are the series elements.
• The leakage susceptance (B) and the leakage conductance (G) are shunt
elements. The leakage susceptance is due to the fact that capacitance exists
between line and neutral. The leakage conductance takes into account the
energy losses occouring through leakage over the insulators or due to corona
effect between conductors. Admittance = (G2 + B2)½

Important points about long T.L.

 T.L length > 150 km
• Calculations related to circuit parameters (ABCD
parameters) of such a power transmission is not that simple,
as was the case for a short transmission line or medium
transmission line. The reason being that, the effective circuit
length in this case is much higher than what it was for the
former models
• The parameters must be taken as distributed uniformly
along the length as a result of which the voltages and
currents will vary from point to point on the line as shown in
fig. below
Figure 5.10 shows one phase and the neutral return (of zero impedance) of a
transmission line. Let dx be an elemental section of the line at a distance x from the
receiving-end having a series impedance zdx and a shunt admittance ydx. The rise in
voltage* to neutral over the elemental section in the direction of increasing x is dVx. We
can write the following differential relationships across the elemental section:
 It may be noticed that the kind of connection (e.g. T or π) assumed for the
elemental section, does not affect these first order differential relations.
Differentiating Eq. (5.14) with respect to x, we obtain,

This is a linear differential equation whose general solution can be written

as follows:
 and C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants
to be evaluated.

Eq. (5.17) with respect to x:

where

The constants C1 and C2 may be evaluated by

using the end conditions, i.e. when x = 0, Vx = VRand
Ix = IR. Substituting these values in Eqs. (5.17) and
(5.19) gives
which upon solving yield

With C1 and C2 as determined above, Eqs. (5.17) and (5.19) yield the solution for
Vx and Ix as

• Here Zc is called the characteristic impedance of the line and γ is called

the propagation constant.
• Knowing VR, IR and the parameters of the line, using Eq. (5.21) complex
number rms values of Vx and Ix at any distance x along the line can be easily
found out.
• A more convenient form of expression for voltage and current is
obtained by introducing hyperbolic functions. Rearranging Eq.
(5.21), we get

• These can be rewritten after introducing hyperbolic functions, as

• In case [Vs Is] is known, [VR IR] can be easily found by inverting Eq.
(5.23). Thus
• Both ƴ and are complex quantities. The real part of the propagation constant ƴ
is called the attenuation constant α and is measured in nepers per unit length.
The quadrature part of ƴ is called the phase constant β and is measured in
radians per unit length. Thus,
ƴ = α + jβ (6.25)

and Eqs. (6.23) and (6.24) become

V= +

&

I=
• The properties of and help to explain the variation of the phasor values of
voltage and current as a function of distance along the line. The term changes
in magnitude as x changes, but (identical to cosβx + jsinβx) always has a
magnitude of 1 and causes a shift in phase of β radians per unit length of line.
• The first term in Eq. (6.26), , increases in
magnitude and advances in phase as distance x from the receiving end
increases.
• Conversely, as progress along the line from the sending end toward the
receiving end is considered, the term diminishes in magnitude and is retarded
in phase.
• This is the characteristics of a traveling wave and is similar to the behavior of
a wave in water, which varies in magnitude with time at any point, whereas its
phase is retarded and its maximum value diminishes with distance from the
origin.
• The variation in instantaneous value is not exposed in the term but is
understood and are phasors. The first term in Eq. (6.26) is called the incident
voltage.
• The second term in Eq. (6.26), [ , diminishes in
magnitude and is retarded in phase from the receiving end toward the sending
end. It is called the reflected voltage. At any point along the line the voltage is
the sum of the component incident and reflected voltages at that point.
• Since the equation for current is similar to the equation for voltage, the current
may be considered to be composed of incident and reflected currents.
• If a line is terminated in its characteristics impedance , receiving-end current,
as may be seen by substituting for in Eqs. (6.26) and (6.27). A line
terminated in its characteristic impedance is called a flat line or an infinite
line.
• The latter term arises from the fact that a line of infinite length cannot have a
reflected wave.
• Usually, power lines are not terminated in their characteristic impedance, but
communication lines are frequently so terminated in order to eliminate the
reflected wave.
• A typical value of is 400 Ὡ for a single-circuit Overhead line and 200 Ὡ for
two circuits in parallel.
• The phase angle of since such lines have lower L and higher C than lines with
a single conductor per phase.
• In power system work characteristic impedance is sometimes called surge
impedance.
• The term “surge impedance”, however, is usually reserved for the special case
of a lossless line. If a line is lossless, its series resistance and shunt
conductance are zero and the characteristic impedance reduces to the real
number, which has the dimensions of ohms when L is the series inductance of
the line in henrys and C is the shunt capacitance in farads.
• Also the propagation constant ƴ = for the line of length l reduces to the
imaginary number jβ = since the attenuation constant αresulting from the line
losses is zero. When dealing with high frequencies or with surges due to
lightning, losses are often neglected and the surge impedance becomes line to
a purely resistive load equal to its surge impedance. When so loaded, the line
supplies a current of
| | =

• Where | | is the line-to-line voltage at the load. Since the load is pure
resistance,
SIL= √3| |

• Or with |VL| in kilovolts,

SIL= (6.28)
• Power system engineers sometimes find it convenient to express the power
transmitted by a line in terms of per unit of SIL, that is, as the ratio of the
power transmitted to the surge-impedance loading. For instance, the
permissible loading of a transmission line may be expressed as a fraction of its
SIL, and SIL provides a comparison of load-carrying capabilities of lines.
• A wavelength λ is the distance along a line between two points of a wave
which differ in phase by 360·, or 2π rad. If β is the phase shift in radians per
mile, the wavelength in miles is
λ= (6.29)

• The velocity of propagation of a wave in miles per second is the product of the
wavelength in miles and the frequency in hertz, or
Velocity = λf = (6.30)
• For the lossless line of length L meters β = 2πf and Eqs. (6.29) and (6.30)
become
λ= m velocity = m/s

• When values of L and C for low-loss overhead lines are substituted in these
equations, it is found that the wavelength is approximately 3000 mi at a
frequency of 60 Hz and the velocity of propagation is very nearly the speed of
light in air (approximately 186,000 mi/s or 3 x m/s.)
• If there is no load on a line, is equal to zero, and as determined by Eqs. (6.26)
and (6.27), the incident and reflected voltages are equal in magnitude and in
phase at the receiving end. In this case the incident and reflected currents are
equal in magnitude but are 180· out of phase at the receiving end. Thus, the
incident and reflected currents cancel each other at the receiving end of an
open line but not at any other point unless the line is entirely lossless so that
the attenuation α is zero.
• Evaluation of ABCD Constants
The ABCD constants of a long line can be evaluated from the results given in Eq.
(5.24). It must be noted that γ=√yz is in general a complex number and can be
expressed as

The hyperbolic function of complex numbers involved in

evaluating ABCD constants can be computed by any one of the three
methods given below.
• Method 1

 Note that sinh, cosh, sin and cos of real numbers as in Eq. (5.27) can be looked
up in standard tables.
 • Method 2

 This series converges rapidly for values of γl usually encountered for power
lines and can be conveniently approximated as above.The corresponding
expressions for ABCD constants are

 The above approximation is computationally convenient and quite accurate

for lines up to 400/500 km.
• Method 3

• Interpretation of long trasmission line

 As already said in Eq. (5.26), γ is a complex number which can be
expressed as

 The real part α is called the attenuation constant and the imaginary part β is
called the phase constant. Now Vx of Eq. (5.21) can be written as
THE LONG TRANSMISSION LINE:
HYPERBOLIC FORM OF THE EQUATIONS
• The incident and reflected waves of voltage are seldom found when
calculating the voltage of a power line. the reason for discussing the voltage
and the current of a line in terms of the incident and reflected components is
that such an analysis is helpful in obtaining a better understanding of some of
the phenomena of transmission lines. A more convenient form of the equation
for computing current and voltage of a power line is found by introducing
hyperbolic functions. Hyperbolic functions are defined in exponential form

• By rearranging Eqs. (6.23) and (6.24) and substituting hyperbolic functions

for the exponential terms, we find a new set of equation. The new equations,
giving voltage and current anywhere along the line, are
• Letting x=t to obtain the voltage and the current at the sending end, we have

• From examination of these equations we see that the generalized circuit

constants for a long line are
• Solving Eqs. (6.35) and (6.36) for …. and ….. in terms of …..and ….., we
obtain

• For balanced three phase lines the currents in the equations are line currents
and the voltages are line-to-neutral voltages, line voltages divided by √3. In
order to solve the equations, the hyperbolic function must be evaluated. Since
is usually complex, the hyperbolic functions are also complex and can be
evaluated with the assistance of a calculator or computer.
• For solving an occasional problem without the restoring to a computer
there are several choices. The following equations give the expansions of
hyperbolic sines and cosines of complex arguments in terms of circular and
hyperbolic functional of the real arguments:
• Above equations make possible the computation of hyperbolic functions of
complex arguments. The correct mathematical unit for …. Is the radian, and
the radian is the unit found for…. By computing the quadrature component of
…. Equations (6.40) and (6.41) can be verified by substituting in them the
exponential forms of the hyperbolic functions and the similar exponential
forms of the circular functions.
• Another method of the evaluating complex hyperbolic functions is suggested
by Eqs. (6.31) and (6.32). substituting α + jβ for θ, we obtain
• Interpretation of long trasmission line
 As already said in Eq. (5.26), γ is a complex number which can be
expressed as

 The real part α is called the attenuation constant and the imaginary part β is
called the phase constant. Now Vx of Eq. (5.21) can be written as
  The instantaneous voltage Vx (t) can be written from Eq. (5.30) as

 The instantaneous voltage consists of two terms each of which is a function of two
variables—time and distance. Thus they represent two travelling waves, i.e.
 At any instant of time t, νx1 is sinusoidally distributed along the distance from the
receiving-end with amplitude increasing exponentially with distance, as shown in
Fig. 5.11 (α > 0 for a line having resistance).
 After time Δt, the distribution advances in distance phase by (ωΔtlβ)
Thus this wave is travelling towards the receiving-end and is
the incident wave. Line losses cause its amplitude to decrease
exponentially in going from the sending to the receiving-end.
Now,

 After time Δt the voltage distribution retards in distance phase by

ωΔtlβ). This is the reflected wave travelling from the receiving-end to
the sending-end with amplitude decreasing exponentially in going from
the receiving-end to the sending-end, as shown in Fig. 5.12.
 At any point along the line, the voltage is the sum of incident and
reflected voltage waves present at the point [Eq. (5.32)]. The same is
true of current waves. Expressions for incident and reflected current
waves can be similarly written down by proceeding from Eq. (5.21). If
Zc is pure resistance, current waves can be simply obtained from
voltage waves by dividing by Zc.
 If the load impedance
• i.e. the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance, the reflected
voltage wave is zero (VR-ZcIR=0).
• A line terminated in its characteristic impedance is called the infinite
line. The incident wave under this condition cannot distinguish between
a termination and an infinite continuation of the line.
• Power system engineers normally call Zc the surge impedance. It has a
value of about 400 ohms for an overhead line and its phase angle
normally varies from 0° to — 15°. For underground cables Zc is roughly
one-tenth of the value for overhead lines. The term surge impedance is,
however, used in connection with surges (due to lightning or switching)
or transmission lines, where the lines loss can be neglected such that
• Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) of a transmission line is defined as the
power delivered by a line to purely resistive load equal in value to the
surge impedance of the line. Thus for a line having 400 ohms surge
impedance,

 where |VR| is the line-to-line receiving-end voltage in kV. Sometimes, it

is found convenient to express line loading in per unit of SIL, i.e. as the
ratio of the power transmitted to surge impedance loading.
 At any time the voltage and current vary harmonically along the line
with respect to x, the space coordinate. A complete voltage or current
cycle along the line corresponds to a change of 2π rad in the angular
argument βx. The corresponding line length is defined as
the wavelength.
• If β is expressed in rad/m

 Now for a typical power transmission line

g (shunt conductance/unit length) = 0
• Now time for a phase change of 2π is 1/f s, where f=ω/2π is the
frequency in cycles/s. During this time the wave travels a distance
equal to λ, i.e. one wavelength.
Velocity of propagation of wave,

 which is a well known result.

For a lossless transmission line (R = 0, G = 0),
 For a single-phase transmission line

 Since r and r’ are quite close to each other, when log is taken, it is
sufficiently accurate to assume that In
 The actual velocity of the propagation of wave along the line would
be somewhat less than the velocity of light.
 Wavelength of a 50 Hz power transmission is approximately given
by

 Practical transmission lines are much shorter than this (usually a few
hundred kilometres). It needs to be pointed out here that the waves
drawn in Figs. 5.11 and 5.12 are for illustration only and do not pertain to
a real power transmission line.
References:
• Modern Power System Analysis – Nagrath and Kothari
• Principles of Power System Analysis – V K Mehta
• Power System Analysis – Grainger and Stevenson
• Power System Analysis and Design – Gupta