REVIEW

8 ELEMENTS comprising almost 99.9 % minerals making up on the

Earths surface
Element Symbol % by wt. of the % atoms
Earths crust
Oxygen O 46.6 62.6
Silicon Si 27.7 21.2
Aluminum Al 8.1 6.5
Iron Fe 5.0 1.9
Calcium Ca 3.6 1.9
Sodium Na 2.8 2.6
Potassium K 2.6 1.4

Magnesium Mg 2.1 1.8

All other elements 1.4 <0.1

Approximately 85% of the Earth’s crust is composed of oxygen and
silicon. Together they form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron

Silicon oxygen
tetrahedron?

Basic building block of silicate

minerals

Silicates are also termed as

(common) rock forming
minerals
 Define Minerals.

*Inorganic, naturally occuring solid with

definite structure and chemical composition

*These are building blocks of rocks

 Rocks?
Rocks are an aggregate of
minerals.

Rocks can be composed of a single

mineral or more commonly composed of
an aggregate of two or more minerals

Example

Quartzite is a metamorphic rock composed predominantly of

Quartz
Can a name of a
mineral be also be
used as a rock name?

Yes, a rock composed

predominantly of the mineral
Gypsum(CaSOP4 is called Gypsum
rock.,
 How can we classify rocks?

Would it be by:

color hardness texture density

Or other physical properties?

Is it by chemical composition?
Generally rocks are classified on
the basis of the mode of
formation and that some of these
physical and chemical properties
are inherent on how the rocks
are formed.
Igneous
 Igneous rocks

These are rocks that are derived from

the cooling and solidification of magma
or lava

From solidified molten rock minerals,

usually hard and crystalline

Rate of cooling as one of the most

important factors that control crystal
size.

Solidification can occur along the surface

of the Earth or beneath the surface of
the Earth
Differentiate magma and lava.

Magma Lava

Lava is molten
Magma is a rock material
molten rock extruded to the
material surface of the
earth through a
beneath the
central
surface of the vent(volcano) or
Earth. as fissure
eruption.
 What is plutonic or intrusive rocks?

From solidified magma underneath the Earth

Gradual lowering of temperature is indicated by the movement of

magma from depth to surface causing slow cooling/crystalization

Common textures: alphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular

Examples

rhyolit
e basalt
andesit
e
 What is volcanic or extrusive rocks?

From solidified lava at near the surface of the earth

Fast rate of cooling/crystalization due to huge variance in the

temperature between Earth’s surface and underneath

Phaneritic textures

Examples

granite
gabbro
diorite
Fast cooling does not promote the
formation of large crystals.
Fragmental rocks usually associated with
violent or explosive types of eruption

example
ignimbrite

Tuff and pyroclastic flow

deposits
Are also classified according to silica content
and relative amounts of K, Na, Fe, Mg, and
Ca. They can be classified as felsic,
intermediate, mafic and ultramafic,
practically based on presence of light and
dark colored minerals.
The relatively dark minerals are

pyroxene homblende
olivine biotite

The relatively light colored minerals are

K-
feldspars quartz muscovite
*Felsic: >65% silica, generally light colored

*Intermediate: andesitic: 55-65% silica,

generally medium colored(medium gray)

*mafic:bassaltic:45-55% silica, usually dark

colored

*ultramafic:<45% silica, generally very dark

colored
Porphyritic texture: formed through two stages of
crystallization where in magma party cooled below the
surface of the earth providing time for the large crystals to
grow(phenocrysts)before it is extruded to the surface
forming the fine-grained matrix(groundmass)

Aphanitic texture: fine-grained texture; minerals not

visible to the naked eye; relatively fast rates of
cooling/solidification prevent the formation of large
crystals

Special textures would include: vesicular, glassy and

porphyry

Vesicular Texture: void created by rapid cooling which

causes air bubbles to be trapped inside.
Sedimentary
 Sedimentary rocks?
*These are rocks that are formed at or near the surface of
the Earth

*Sedimentary processes include: weathering of rocks,

erosion, sediment transport and deposition(compaction and
cementation)

*Common sedimentary features: Fossil assemblages and

stratification

*Fossil assemblages remains and traces of plants and animals

that are preserved in rocks

*Stratification or layering(strata which is >1 cm is called

bedding and <1 cm is called ;lamination) layering is the result
of a change in grain size and composition; each layer
represents a distinct period of deposition
Gabbro and Basalt are of the same chemical composition but differ
in texture. Gabbro has larger crystals than basalt which has finer
crystals

Temperature and pressure at the Earths Surface are low, allowing

for the sedimentary processes to happen

Sediments: solid fragments of organic or inorganic materials from

weathered and eroded pre-existing rocks and living matters.
 Clastic
Sedimentary
rocks
 Clastic Sedimentary rocks
Grains, matrix and cement are the components of clastic rocks

Clastic rocks are commonly classified based on particular size

Clastic rocks with volcanic origin(pyroclastic) and may have

undergone some stages in the sedimentary processes could be
classified as sedimentary rock(volcanoclastic rocks)

The presence of variable grain sizes(including matrix and

cement) is indicative of sedimentary differentiation which is
actually a function of processes happening in different
sedimentary environments
Grains
Greater than sand-sized minerals and/or
rock fragments

Matrix

Fine-grained minerals

Cement

Minerals precipitated from solutions that

binds the grains and matrix together
Clast Sediment Sediment Rock name Rock Comment
sediment group name Group
size(mm)
>256 Gravel Boulders Conglomera Rudaceous Identifiable
te (rounded Roks clasts
64-256 Cobbles clasts); Clasts
Breccia visible to
4-64 Pebbles (angular naked eye:
clasts) often
2-4 Granules
identifiable
1-2 Sand Very coarse sandstone Arenaceous Clasts
sand Rocks visible to
0.5-1 naked eye:
Coarse
sand often
identifiable
0.25-0.5 Medium Grains not
sand visible to
0.125-0.25 Fine sand naked eye

0.063-0.125 Very fine

sand
0.032-0.063 Salt Saltstone Argillaceou Grains not
s Rocks visible to
naked eye
 Non-clastic Sedimentary
rocks

Evaporation and precipitation fro solution

or lithification of organic matter

Classified as evaporates( halite, gypsum

and dolostone), precipitates (limestone)
and bioclastic (coal, coquina)

Chart below summarizes the features of

the non-clastic rocks
 Metamorphic
rocks

• Formed below the earth surface

through the process of metamorphism
with the crystallization of minerals in
rocks due to changes in pressure and
temperature condition

• * contact and regional metamorphism

 Contact
metamorphism

• heat and reactive fluids as many factors,

occurs when a pre-existing rock gets in contact
with magma which is the source oh heat and
magmatic fluids where metamorphic
alterations and transformations occur around
the contact/metamorphic aureole of the
intruding magma and the rock layers. The
aureole occurs on different scales depending on
the sizes of the intruding magma and the
amount of water in the intruded rocks and the
reactive fluids coming from the magma
 Contact
metamorphism

• Creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks

example

Homfels
 Regional
metamorphism

* Pressure as main factor: occur in areas that have

undergone considerable amount of mechanical deformation
and chemical recrystallization during orogenic event which
are commonly associated with mountain belts

*occurs in a regional/large scale

*creates foliated metamorphic rocks

Examples are schist and gneiss

*non-foliated rocks like marble also form through regional

metamorphism, where pressure is not intense, far from the
main geologic events
 Rock cycle

Illustrates how
geologic processes
occur both underneath
and on the Earth’s
surface can change a
rock from one type to
another
Rock cycle
 The end…

Prepared By: Nesperos, J. and

Orehuela J.