DEE3253/6533 – ANALOGUE

ELECTRONICS FUNDAMENTAL

Diodes
Subtopics

1.0 Semiconductor diodes (3 hours)

1.1 Introduction to semiconductors materials
1.2 Introduction to diode
1.3 Introduction to Zener diode and LED

2.0 Diode applications ( 6 hours)

2.1 Load line analysis and diode approximation
2.2 Series-Parallel Configuration
2.3 Half-wave and Full-wave rectification
2.4 Clippers and Clampers
2.5 Zener diode application
Early Diodes
 Thermionic diodes are thermionic valve devices (also known as
vacuum tubes)
 Electrodes surrounded by a vacuum within a glass envelope, similar in
appearance to incandescent light bulbs.
Semiconductor Diodes

 Most modern diodes are based on semiconductor p-n junctions

 In a p-n diode, conventional current can flow from the p-type
side (the anode) to the n-type side (the cathode), but cannot
flow in the opposite direction.

Diode symbol
Semiconductor Materials

 Semiconductor means the elements having a

conductivity between a conductor and an
insulator
 Commonly used:
– Germanium (Ge) Single-crystal
– Silicon (Si)
– Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Compound
Atomic Structure

 Every atom is composed of 3 basic particles: electron, proton &

neutron
 The outermost orbit are called valence electrons
 Semiconductor have only 3 – 5 valence electrons

Carbon Silicon Germanium

Atomic Structure

 Covalent bonding is the

bonding of atoms,
strengthened by the sharing
of electrons
 Ex: covalent bonding of
silicon atoms
Energy Levels
 There are specific energy levels
associated with each orbiting
electron
 To become a conductor,
electron from valence band
must absorb energy to across
the energy gap and into the
conduction band

 The energy levels are different for every element

Extrinsic Materials

 n-type materials
– Extra electrons in the
covalent bond gets from
n-type materials such as
antimony, arsenic and
phosphorus
Extrinsic Materials

 p-type materials
– Extra holes in the
covalent bond gets from
p-type materials such as
boron, gallium and
indium
Semiconductor Diodes

 By simply joining the n-type and p-type

material together, a semiconductor diode was
born
depletion
region
Semiconductor Diodes

 Connect the diode to a source:

This is called REVERSE BIAS

 The electrons in n-type material will attracts to +ve terminal of

the source
 The holes in p-type material will attracts to –ve terminal of the
source
 So, the depletion region becomes bigger and electrons cannot
pass, hence no current flows
Semiconductor Diodes

 Connect the diode to a source:

This is called FORWARD BIAS

 The electrons in n-type material will attracts to +ve terminal of

the source and jump into p-type material
 The holes in p-type material will attracts to –ve terminal of the
source and jump into n-type material
 So, the depletion region becomes lesser/gone and electrons
can pass, hence current will flows
Semiconductor Diodes

 To conclude, diode can be represented as a

switch (but not ideal)
 For a forward-bias, 0.7V (knee voltage, VD)
have to be applied for the diode (for silicon)
 For germanium, VD = 0.2 ~ 0.3V
 For gallium arsenide, VD = 1.2 ~ 1.4V
Semiconductor Diodes

 Comparison of Ge, Si and GaAs diodes

Zener region
Zener Diode

 A special type of diode that is supposed to be reversed biased

 Zener diode works in zener region where the diode start to
breakdown at breakdown avalanche voltage (VZ), and the
current is avalanche current (IZ)
 It limits a voltage to a certain point to pass through the zener
diode
LED (Light-Emitting Diode)
 In a forward-biased p-n junction,
recombination of the holes and Color Construction Forward
electrons requires energy Voltage
possessed by the unbound free
electrons Amber AlInGaP 2.1
 In Si and Ge, most of the energy is Blue GaN 5.0
dissipated in the form of heat and Green GaP 2.2
photons Orange GaAsP 2.0
 But in other material such as GaAs, Red GaAsP 1.8
the energy generate light but it is
White GaN 4.1
invisible for the eye to see
(infrared) Yellow AlInGaP 2.1
 Other materials that emit light
during forward-bias operation
LED (Light-Emitting Diode)

 How an LED works

Diode Approximation

 Diode equivalent circuits:

– Ideal Equivalent Circuit
– Simplified Equivalent Circuit
– Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit
 Purpose: to represent diode
Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

 Approximation representation of the actual diode

 Diode have VD and rav for the slope region
Simplified Equivalent Circuit

 Assume straight vertical line of ID at VD

 No rav
Ideal Equivalent Circuit

 Diode as an ideal switch

 No VD or rav
Load-Line Analysis

 A simple analysis which used the diode characteristic to obtain

the Q-point (operation point)
 A series diode circuit and characteristic:
Load-Line Analysis

 E  VD  VR  VD  I R
 For VD  0, E  0  I D R  I D R,  I D  E R
 For I D  0, E  VD  (0) R  VD , VD  E
 Connect a line between E / R and E
 The overlap of the lines becomes the Q-point of the
diode and IDQ and VDQ will be obtained
Load-Line Analysis
Problem 2.1a

 Determine ID, VD & VR

 The circuit:
Problem 2.1a

 The diode characteristic:

Problem 2.1a

 Solution:
– The circuit representation: E  VD  VR  VD  I D R
– For VD  0, E  0  I D R
 ID  E  8  24.24 mA
R 0.33k

– For I D  0, E  VD  (0) R
VD  E  8 V
Problem 2.1a

 The load-line analysis becomes:

E
R
Q-point

I DQ

VDQ
Problem 2.1a

 From the analysis:

– VDQ = VD ≈ 0.9 V
– IDQ = ID ≈ 21.5 mA
– For VR, VR  I D R
 (21.5m)(0.33k )
 7.095 V
Problem 2.1b

 Re-do Problem 2.1a using approximate (simplified) model for

diode and compare the result
 The diode characteristic becomes:
Problem 2.1b

 The solution:
Problem 2.1b

 VD is always 0.7 V, so VD = VDQ = 0.7 V

 From the graph, IDQ = ID ≈ 22 mA
 So, we get VR = (22m)(0.33k) = 7.26 V ≈ 7.3 V
 Using Kirchoff’s voltage law, E = VD + VR
8  0.7  VR
VR  7.3 V

 The answer are the same

Problem 2.1c

 Re-do Problem 2.1a using ideal model for diode and compare
the result
 The diode characteristic becomes:
Problem 2.1c

 The solution
Problem 2.1c

 VD is always 0 V, so VD = VDQ = 0 V
 It acts like an ideal switch
 From the graph, IDQ = ID ≈ 24.24 mA
 So, we get VR = (24.24m)(0.33k) = 7.9992 V ≈ 8 V
 Using Kirchoff’s voltage law, E = VR
VR  8 V

 The answer are the same

Series-Parallel Configuration

 Diode can be applied to any circuits

 Usually diode is represented as an
approximated (simplified) model diode
 To keep the calculation simple, just use the
Kirchoff’s voltage & current law
 Hint: it is easier to use nodal analysis
technique for circuit representation
 Important: strong knowledge in CIRCUIT
THEORY!!!!!
Problem 2.5a

 Find I
 The circuit:
Problem 2.5a

 For Si, VD = 0.7 V

 Notice that the diode is in reverse-bias
configuration
 So, no current will flow, I = 0 A
Problem 2.5b

 Find I
 The circuit:
Problem 2.5b

 Solution:
– Using nodal analysis, node V is equal to the
voltage supplied, so V = 20

V
Problem 2.5b

 Using the simple Ohm’s law:

V 20  0.7
I   0.965 A
R 20
Problem 2.5c

 Find I
 The circuit:
Problem 2.5c

 Solution:
– One of the diode is in reverse-bias resulting in
open circuit for that part
Problem 2.5c

 So, by using the simple Ohm’s law:

V 10
I  1A
R 10
Problem 2.7a

 Find Vo
 The circuit:
Problem 2.7a

 Both the diode are in forward-bias, so both are short-circuited

 For Si, VD = 0.7 V
 For Ge, VD = 0.3 V
 The circuit becomes:

SIMPLIFIED
0.7 V 0.3 V
19 V
Problem 2.7a

 Solution:
– Using nodal analysis, voltage at Vo:

19  V0 V0

2k 2k
V0  9.5 V
Problem 2.7b

 Find Vo
 The circuit:
Problem 2.7b

 The circuit becomes:

0.7 V
Problem 2.7b

 Solution:
– The nodal analysis of node Vo:

10  0.7  V0 V0  (2)

1.2k 4.7 k
V0  7 V
Problem 2.11a

 Find Vo & I:
 The circuit:
Problem 2.11a

 For Si, VD = 0.7 V

 For Ge, VD = 0.3 V
 Because of this, current
will flow in the Ge’s
diode route 0.3 V
 Naturally, current will
select the
easiest/fastest route
 So, the circuit
becomes:
Problem 2.11a

 Solution:
– Using Kirchoff’s voltage law:

V0  10  0.3  9.7 V
– For I, by using basic Ohm’s law:

V0 9.7
I   9.7 mA
R 1k
Problem 2.11b

 Find Vo & I:
 The circuit:
Problem 2.11b

 For the same type of

diode, the circuit will
becomes: 0.7 V
 Because there is no
resistor exist in the 0.7 V 0.7 V
parallel route of the
diode, current will flow
in only one of the
diode’s route
Problem 2.11b

 Solution:
– Using Kirchoff’s voltage law:

V0  16  0.7  0.7  14.6 V

– For I, by using Ohm’s law:

14.6  12
I  0.553 mA
4.7 k
Problem 2.13

 Find Vo & ID
 The circuit:
Problem 2.13

 The circuit becomes:

0.7 V

0.7 V

9.3 V
SIMPLIFIED

9.3 V

SIMPLIFIED
Problem 2.13

 The solution:
– The nodal analysis for node Vo:
9.3  V0 V0

1k 2k
V0  6.2 V

– For ID:
9.3  6.2
ID   1.55 mA
2k
Rectification

 Rectify means improvement, cure healing

(pembaikan, penambahbaikan)
 For a sinusoidal waveform or any supply that
has a variation of input value, diode can be
used for rectification
 Rectification are used to modified the input
value to become only the signal that we want
Half-Wave Rectification

 For a full cycle of a sinusoidal or continuous waveform,

only half of the waveform is taken to be rectified
Half-Wave Rectification

 For the period 0  T/2, the sinusoidal input will give

a forward bias supply to the circuit
 The diode will “on” and current will pass through
 Assume that the diode is ideal
Half-Wave Rectification

 For the period T/2  T, the sinusoidal input will give

a reverse bias supply to the circuit
 The diode will “off” and no current can pass through
 Assume that the diode is ideal
Half-Wave Rectification

 For a continuous
periodic waveform, the
rectified waveform will
become:
 Where as:

Vdc  0.318Vm
Problem 2.25

 Sketch Vo and determine Vdc:

Problem 2.25

 Solution:
– To obtain Vm from Vrms:
Vm  2Vrms
 2 (110 )  155.56 V
– The output Vo will be:

– Vdc will be: Vdc  0.318Vm

 0.318(155.56)  49.47 V
Problem 2.26

 Sketch Vo
Problem 2.26

 Solution:
– For the positive input supply:

– The circuit becomes:

For Vi < 0.7V: For Vi ≥ 0.7V:

0.7 V
Problem 2.26

– The output for the positive input supply becomes:

– For the negative input supply:

Problem 2.26

– The circuit becomes:

– For maximum Vo: - The output becomes:

 10  V0 V0

1k 10k
Vo  9.091V
Problem 2.26

– Combine both the output becomes:

PIV or PRV

 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or Peak Reverse

Voltage (PRV)
 It is a rating to make sure for the reverse-
bias operation, the diode didn’t enter the
Zener region
 PIV is set according to the circuit and the
input voltage
PIV rating  Vm for half-wave rectifier
Full-Wave Rectification

 The whole cycle of input signal is used and

rectified
 Two commonly types of full-wave rectifier:
– Bridge Network
– Center-Tapped (CT) Transformer
 The dc level from a sinusoidal input can be
improved 100%. So the Vdc becomes:

Vdc  0.636Vm
Full-Wave Rectifier: Bridge Network

 The most commonly bridge network

configuration are build with 4 diodes
Full-Wave Rectifier: Bridge Network

 For the positive input supply, the current will

take the route as shown below, and the
output will becomes:
Full-Wave Rectifier: Bridge Network

 For the negative input supply, the current will

take the route as shown below, and the
output will becomes:
Full-Wave Rectifier: Bridge Network

 Combine both of the output becomes:

Full-Wave Rectifier: Bridge Network

 Due to the maximum voltage from the input

supply is Vm, to keep the diode away from the
Zener region, the PIV rating is:

PIV rating  Vm for full-wave rectifier: bridge network

Full-Wave Rectifier: Center-Tapped
(CT) Transformer

 It is constructed with 2 diodes and a center-tapped transformer

 The transformer ratio is 1:2
Full-Wave Rectifier: Center-Tapped
(CT) Transformer

 For the positive input supply:

Full-Wave Rectifier: Center-Tapped
(CT) Transformer

 For the negative input supply:

Problem 2.28

 The circuit:

All diodes are silicon

120 Vrms
1 kΩ
Problem 2.28a

 Determine DC voltage for output

 Solution:
– Vm: Vm  2 Vrms   2 120  169.71 V
– Vo: V0  169.71  0.7  0.7  168.31 V
– So, Vdc: Vdc  0.636V0   0.636(168.31)
Problem 2.28b

 Determine the required PIV rating for each

diode from problem 2.28
 Solution:
– PIV: PIV  Vm (load)  VD  168.31  0.7  169.01 V
Problem 2.28c

 Find the maximum current through each

diode
 Solution:
V0(max) 168.31
– ID(max): I D (max)    168.31 mA
RL 1k
Problem 2.28d

 What is the required power for each diode?

 Solution:
P  I D (max)VD  168.31m  0.7   178.82 mW
Problem 2.31

 Sketch Vo and determine Vdc

 The input and circuit:
Problem 2.31

 Solution:
– For the positive input supply:
– Simplified the circuit:

+ +
SIMPLIFIED

vi vo vi vo

1.1 kΩ

- -
Problem 2.31

– Vo(peak): 170  V0 V0

2.2k 1.1k
V0  56.67 V
– The same for negative input supply
– So the output will becomes:

56.67 V
Clippers

 Configuration that employ diodes to “clip”

away a portion of an input signal without
distorting the remaining part of the applied
waveform
 Mainly, there are two types of configuration
– Series
– Parallel
Clippers

 Example of series configuration and the output waveform:

Clippers

 Example of parallel configuration and the output waveform:

Clippers

 Notice something?
 Is the configuration similar to something?

Half-wave rectifier
is a part of
CLIPPERS
configuration
Example 2.18

 Sketch vo
Example 2.18

 For positive input cycle:  The output waveform

will become:

 The output will be the

sum of vi and +5V
v0  vi  5
Example 2.18

 For negative input cycle:

– For vi ≤ 5: - For vi ≥ 5:

- -

+ +

v0  5  vi v0  0
Example 2.18

 The output waveform will becomes:

Example 2.18

 By comparing the input with the whole output:

Example 2.20

 Sketch vo
Example 2.20

 For positive input cycle:

– For vi ≤ 4 - For vi ≥ 4

v0  4 v0  vi
Example 2.20

 The output waveform will become:

Example 2.20

 The output for negative input cycle will always +4V due to the
external supply of 4V series with the diode
 The diode will always be in the “on” mode
– The circuit becomes: - The output waveform:

v0  4
Example 2.20

 By comparing the input

with the whole output:
Clampers

 Construct of a diode, a resistor and a

capacitor
 It will shift the waveform to a different level
without changing the appearance of the
original input signal
 The capacitor and resistor (  RC ) must be
large to ensure it doesn’t discharge during
the interval that the diode is non-conducting
Clampers

 The circuit:
Clampers

 Steps for clampers analysis:

1. Start the analysis with the condition where the
diode is in forward bias
2. The capacitor will charge up instantaneously
during the interval of +ve or –ve input supply
where the diode is in forward-bias condition
3. The capacitor will discharge during the next
interval of +ve or –ve input supply where the
diode is in reverse-bias condition
4. Check that the total swing of the output is the
same with the input
Example 2.22

 Sketch vo
Example 2.22

 Just to check whether the capacitor is appropriate for clamper’s

configuration:
  RC  (100k )(0.1 )  10 ms
 For the input given: 1 1
T   1 ms
f 1000
 For every half interval (+ve or –ve input cycle):
T 1 ms
  0.5 ms
2 2
 This shows that the capacitor is capable of charging and
discharging according to the clamper’s configuration requirement
T
 
2
Example 2.22

 To start the analysis with the diode in forward-bias mode, the

negative input cycle has to be inserted first into the circuit
– The circuit: - The output waveform:

The capacitor will charge up to 25V

Example 2.22

 For the next half input cycle that is the +ve cycle:
– The circuit: - The output waveform:

The capacitor will discharge the

voltage of 25V
Example 2.22

 The whole output waveform  Checking the total swing of the

will become: output must match the input:

The total swing of the output is the same with the input that is 30 V
Zener Diodes

 The application of Zener diodes have been

explained in Subtopic 1.3
 The analysis of Zener diodes can be divided
into 3 categories:
– Fixed Vi and RL
– Fixed Vi, variable RL
– Variable Vi, fixed RL
 To make the analysis simple, the analysis will
be explain directly from the examples
Example 2.26a (Fixed Vi and RL)

 Determine VL, VR and IZ

Example 2.26a (Fixed Vi and RL)

 To check whether VZ is in the “on” or “off” mode, the value of VL

must be determine first
 To do that, take out the Zener diode from the diode
 The circuit become:
Example 2.26a (Fixed Vi and RL)

 By doing a nodal analysis for the node VL

16  VL VL

1k 1.2k
VL  8.73 V

 As we can see, the value of VL is smaller than VZ, so the Zener

diode is in the “off” mode
 Which will result in: I 0A
Z

 And: Vi  VR  VL
VR  16  8.73  7.27 V
Example 2.26b (Fixed Vi and RL)

 Repeat Example 2.26a with RL = 3kΩ

3 kΩ
Example 2.26b (Fixed Vi and RL)

 The same analysis is repeated from Example 2.26a where the

Zener diode is taken out to examine the value of VL
 The circuit becomes:

3 kΩ
Example 2.26b (Fixed Vi and RL)

 By doing a nodal analysis for the node VL

16  VL VL

1k 3k
VL  12 V
 As we can see, the value of VL is larger than VZ, so the Zener diode
is in the “on” mode
 When the Zener diode is in the “on” mode, it will maintain the
voltage of 10V. Because of that VL becomes:
VL  VZ  10 V
 And VR becomes:
VR  16  10  6 V
Example 2.26b (Fixed Vi and RL)

 Using current divider theory:

I Z  Ii  I L
VR VL
 
R RL
6 10
 
1k 3k
 2.67 mA
Example 2.27 (Fixed Vi, Variable RL)

 Determine the range of RL and IL that will result in VL being

maintained at 10 V
Example 2.27 (Fixed Vi, Variable RL)

 To maintain VL at 10 V, the Zener diode must be in the “on”

mode
 For IZM = 32 mA, the current at load:
I L  I R  I ZM
50  10
  32m
1k
 8 mA
 The load would be:
VL 10
RL    1.25 k
I L 8m
Example 2.27 (Fixed Vi, Variable RL)

 For IZ(min), the Zener diode are assume “off” but the voltage VZ
are maintained at 10 V
 The load current would be:
IL  IR
50  10

1k
 40 mA
 The load would be:
VL 10
RL    250 
I L 40m
Example 2.27 (Fixed Vi, Variable RL)

 Retrieve back all the IL and RL value:

IL (min) RL (max)

I L  8 mA RL  1.25 k
I L  40 mA RL  250 
IL (max) RL (min)
Example 2.28 (Variable Vi, Fixed RL)

 Determine the range of Vi that will maintain the Zener diode in

the “on” mode
Example 2.28 (Variable Vi, Fixed RL)

 To maintain Zener diode in “on” mode, VZ must equal to VL:

VZ  VL  20 V

 Taking the maximum current of the Zener diode, input current

becomes: I I I
R ZM L

20
 60m 
1 .2 k
 76.67 mA
 The input voltage will become: Vi  20  I R R  (76.67m)(220)
Vi  36.87 V
Example 2.28 (Variable Vi, Fixed RL)

 For IZ(min), the Zener diode are assume “off” but the voltage VZ
are maintained at 20 V
 Using nodal analysis at node VL:
Vi  20 20

220 1.2k
Vi  23.67 V

 Retrieve back all the value of Vi:

Vi  36.87 V Vi  23.67 V

Vi (max) Vi (min)
 Voltage Multiplier Circuits

Voltage multiplier circuits use a combination of diodes

and capacitors to step up the output voltage of rectifier
circuits.

• Voltage Doubler
• Voltage Tripler
• Voltage Quadrupler
 Voltage Doubler

This half-wave voltage doubler’s output can be calculated as

Vout = VC2 = 2Vm

Vm = peak secondary voltage of the transformer.

 Operation of a Voltage Doubler Circuit

The 1st capacitor charges up to Vm during the positive half of the cycle,
then the 2nd capacitor charges up to Vm in the same polarity as the 1st
capacitor,
finally the output is the sum of the voltages across both capacitors:
Vout = 2Vm
 Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler Circuits

By adding more diode-capacitor networks the voltage can be

increased.
 Practical Applications of Diode Circuits

Rectifier Circuits
Conversions of AC to DC for DC operated circuits
Battery Charging Circuits

Simple Diode Circuits

Protective Circuits against
Overcurrent
Polarity Reversal
Currents caused by an inductive kick in a relay circuit

Zener Circuits
Overvoltage Protection
Setting Reference Voltages