Lecture 3 - Rainfall Abstraction Computation - Rainfall Abstraction Computation

RAINFALL ABSTRACTION COMPUTATION the basics
 to this point, we have discussed the weather, precipitation, methods to analyze

rainfall data, and techniques for hyetograph construction
 this lecture deals with various methods for acquiring the quantity of runoff
produced by a given rainfall
 rainfall has many destinations, part of the rainfall ends up in surface puddles,
some is intercepted by vegetation, some will infiltrate into the soil, small amounts
may evaporate before reaching the ground, what remains will produce surface
runoff
 abstractions or losses from rainfall refer collectively to that part of the rainfall that
does not show up as runoff
 abstractions include interception, surface depression storage, evaporation,

transpiration, and infiltration  under design storm conditions the evaporation and
transpiration are negligible
06-87-471 Hydrology
RAINFALL ABSTRACTION COMPUTATION the basics
 rainfall excess or effective rainfall is computed as the total rainfall – abstractions
 the rate of rainfall excess or rate of effective rainfall is defined as the depth of
rainfall excess produced per unit time
 this can be computed as the rate of rainfall – the rate of loss
 it is typical to assume that the rainfall excess is solely responsible for storm runoff
in urban watersheds, thus we can say that the total volume of rainfall excess is
equal to the total volume of runoff produced
06-87-471 Hydrology
the basics – interception,
infiltration, and depression
RAINFALL ABSTRACTION COMPUTATION storage
 interception, infiltration, and depression storage are the primary types of

abstraction in urban watersheds under design-storm conditions
 what follows are the most common methods to determine these losses
06-87-471 Hydrology
RAINFALL ABSTRACTION COMPUTATION interception storage
 interception storage references that part of the rainfall that is intercepted by trees,
plants, and other vegetation before it can reach the ground
 the water evaporates back into the atmosphere after adhering to branches,
leaves, and other plant surfaces
 interception mainly occurs during the earliest portions of a storm, since the leaves
and branches intercepting the rainfall will reach their maximum holding capacity
rather quickly
 the amount of interception depends on the type and density of the vegetation and
the amount of rainfall
 empirical methods are used in practice to estimate losses due to interception
06-87-471 Hydrology
 one such empirical method was developed by Horton (1919)
 Horton suggested the expression
Li = a + bPTn - [1]
 here Li = interception in inches
 PT = total rainfall depth in inches
 a, b, n = empirical constants
06-87-471 Hydrology
 Horton’s expression was later reanalyzed by Aron (1992), and he subsequently

developed the expression
 here Li = interception in inches
Li = cPTm - [2]
 PT = total rainfall depth in inches
 c and m = fitting parameters
 values of a, b, n, c, and m are shown in the table below
06-87-471 Hydrology
 though estimates of losses caused by interception storage can be significant in

long term evaluations like annual models, accounting for interception might be
unnecessary for heavy rainfalls during individual storm events
06-87-471 Hydrology
RAINFALL ABSTRACTION COMPUTATION infiltration
 in pervious areas, the process of infiltration is responsible for the largest portion of
rainfall losses
 infiltration per se refers to the mechanism by which rainwater passes through the
ground surface and fills the pores of the underlying soil
 the infiltration rates depend on both the surface and subsurface conditions  the
surface conditions govern the availability of water, and the subsurface conditions
determine the capacity of the available water to infiltrate
 the rate of rainfall represents the availability of water at the ground surface and
the infiltration capacity or potential infiltration rate (defined as the maximum rate at
which water can infiltrate) represents the ability of available water to infiltrate
06-87-471 Hydrology
 if infiltration is the dominant (or only) type of abstraction, then we can compute
runoff
ie = i - f - [3]
 here ie = rate of effective rainfall (or rate of rainfall excess)
 f = actual rate of infiltration
 i = rate of rainfall
 truly accurate evaluation of the infiltration process is a very daunting task, to do so

we would employ the Richards equation
∂/ ∂z [KsKr ∂/∂z (z + p/g)] = f ∂S/∂p ∂p/∂t - [4]
06-87-471 Hydrology
∂/ ∂z [KsKr ∂/∂z (z + p/g)] = f ∂S/∂p ∂p/∂t - [4]
 here z = vertical distance above a horizontal datum
 Ks = saturated conductivity or permeability of the soil
 Kr = relative permeability
 p = soil water pressure
 g = specific weight of water
 f = soil porosity
 S = degree of saturation (ranging from zero (completely dry) to 1.0 (saturated))
 for us to solve this equation requires coupling it with linking relationships

between p and S as well as Kr and S (which vary by soil)
06-87-471 Hydrology
∂/ ∂z [KsKr ∂/∂z (z + p/g)] = f ∂S/∂p ∂p/∂t - [4]
 to solve [4] a highly non-linear partial DE requires computational methods that

exceed the scope of the course
 here, instead, we will illustrate simplified methods to relate the initial soil
moisture condition and the amount of water that has already infiltrated the soil after
rainfall has initiated
 the first one we examine is the Green and Ampt Model (1911)
 the Green and Ampt Model is the most physically oriented algebraic infiltration
model available  all parameters in the model have a physical basis and can be
determined from soil characteristics
06-87-471 Hydrology
green and ampt model
 the definition sketch below will serve as the basis for the development of the
Green and Ampt equations
 we suppose the soil in a

pervious region has a uniform
degree of saturation equal to Si at
the initiation of rainfall
 we represent this with the

vertical line at S = Si
 as rainwater enters the soil the

degree of saturation will increase
(obviously the increase will be
greater near the ground surface
and decrease with depth)
06-87-471 Hydrology
 a typical moisture profile at some time t during the infiltration process is shown in
the figure
 this model approximates this

profile by something called a sharp
or squared off wetting front
 above the wetting front the soil is

saturated, and below it the initial
degree of saturation is maintained
 that is to say that the model

assumes two distinct zones
occupy the underlying soil during
the infiltration process
06-87-471 Hydrology
 a saturated zone will develop adjacent to the surface shortly after the rain
begins, this zone will increase in depth as more water infiltrates the soil
 the dryer zone below the wetting
front is assumed to have unlimited
depth (one could also say that the
water table or bed rock is deep
enough not to interfere with the
infiltration process)
 Darcy’s law, valid for saturated
flow through porous media is
applied to the saturated zone
adjacent to the soil surface to
obtain an expression for the
infiltration capacity in the form
fp = [K(Z + Pf)] / Z - [5]
06-87-471 Hydrology
fp = [K(Z + Pf)] / Z - [5]
 here fp = infiltration capacity
 K= hydraulic conductivity of the soil
 Pf = characteristic suction head of

the soil
 Z = depth of the wetted zone
measured from the soil surface
 We note that in [5], the pressure

at the soil surface is assumed equal
to atmospheric pressure (why ?)
06-87-471 Hydrology
 the infiltration capacity of a dry soil is usually high, this will decrease as infiltration
continues
 ponding time is defined as the
length of time prior to the infiltration
capacity dropping below the rate of
rainfall
 if the rate of rainfall is constant

during the ponding time, we can use
the following expression for ponding
time:
tp = Pff (1-Si) / ((i2/K)-1) - [6]
06-87-471 Hydrology
 the Green and Ampt parameters can be estimated according to soil texture and
land use practices
 the following figures developed by Rawls (1983) to estimate the Green and Ampt
parameters according to the soil texture
 depending on clay and sand content of the soil, the porosity, f, and the suction
head, Pf can be obtained directly from the figures below
06-87-471 Hydrology
 for the Green and Ampt model we assume the hydraulic conductivity, K, is
equivalent to the saturated hydraulic conductivity, Ks, available in the figure below
06-87-471 Hydrology

 the average values for Green and Ampt soil parameters are also presented in the
table below
06-87-471 Hydrology

 the Green and Ampt equations were developed for homogeneous soils, however,
these equations can be extended to describe stratified soil infiltration as well (Rawls
et al. 1993) (when the hydraulic conductivity decreases with depth)
 the equations remain the same until the wetting front enters the second layer, and
the K is calculated as K = (KaKb)0.5, where subscripts a and b denote the two soil
layers  this follows for subsequent layers
06-87-471 Hydrology
 infiltration calculations are typically carried out over discrete time intervals, Dt
 the increase in depth of the saturated zone DZ during a time interval is computed
using
DZ = fDt /(f(1-Si)) - [7]
 here f = rate of infiltration during the time interval
 f = effective porosity
 Si = initial degree of saturation
 for discrete time intervals we obtain a relationship between Z and F as
Z = F/ f(1-Si) - [8]
 NB**all G and A eqns [5] through [8] are dimensionally homogeneous and may
therefore be utilized with any consistent unit system
06-87-471 Hydrology
EX 1
GIVEN: An open area contains a sandy clay loam having Green and Ampt
parameters of f = 0.40, K = 0.30 cm/hr, Pf = 22 cm, the initial degree
of saturation is Si = 0.70
Rainfall rates are tabulated in (4) of the table supplied
REQD: Determine the losses due to infiltration, as well determine the rates of
effective rainfall assuming that all losses are due to infiltration
06-87-471 Hydrology

EX 1
SOLU:
 the solution presented in above table is based on a time increment of 5 min or 1/12 hr
 fp we have in (6) is computed by way of [5]
fp = [K(Z + Pf)] / Z - [5]

06-87-471 Hydrology
EX 1 green and ampt model

SOLU:
An open area contains a sandy clay loam having Green and Ampt
parameters of f = 0.40, K = 0.30 cm/hr, Pf = 22 cm, the initial degree
of saturation is Si = 0.70
 we note that the average depth of the wetting front (Z = Z1 +Z2)/2 is not used for the Z
in [5], rather we use Z1 for simplicity as we do not know Z2 yet, this approximation is
negligible if the time interval is taken small enough
 in (7) the value for f (rate of infiltration) is taken as the smaller of fp (capacity for
infiltration) and i (rainfall)
DZ = fDt /(f(1-Si)) - [7]
fp = [K(Z + Pf)] / Z - [5] 06-87-471 Hydrology

SOLU:
 in (8), DZ represents the change in the wetting depth during the time interval and is
evaluated via [7] DZ = fDt /(f(1-Si)) - [7]
 in (9) Z2 is the depth of the wetting front at the end of the time interval, and it is
evaluated as Z2 = Z1 + DZ
 in (10) ie, the rate of effective rainfall, is equal to ie = i - f 06-87-471 Hydrology


SOLU:
 careful inspection of the table reveals that

surface saturation occurs (i.e. the start of
runoff) between 15 and 20 min in this
example (as illustrated below)
87-323 Hydrology I
SOLU:  we can solve for the total depth of water that will infiltrate by
summing the f’s of (7) multiplied by Dt
 we can also use [8] to compute F using the last Z2 in the table,
i.e., F = 11.69 cm X 0.40 (1 – 0.70) = 1.40 cm
 the total rainfall excess would be equal to the sum of the ie’s in
(10) multiplied by Dt  in this example Sie = 19.17 cm/hr, thus the
total rainfall excess (runoff) is 19.17 cm/hr X 1/12 hr = 1.60 cm
Z = F/ f(1-Si) - [8] 06-87-471 Hydrology

horton method
 in 1940 Horton proposed an exponential decay function (based on experimental

data) to compute infiltration capacity
fp = ff + (f0 – ff) e-kt - [9]
 ff = final infiltration capacity
 f0 = initial infiltration capacity
 k = exponential decay constant
 t = time from beginning of rainfall
 [9] is dimensionally homogeneous
06-87-471 Hydrology
horton method
 the figure below is a graphical representation of [9] and demonstrates how

infiltration varies with time
fp = ff + (f0 – ff) e-kt - [9]
06-87-471 Hydrology
horton method
EX 2
GIVEN: An urban area is subjected to the rainfall tabulated in (3) of table 3.5
and plotted in figure 3.7
The Horton parameters are estimated as f0 = 3.0 cm/hr, ff = 0.5
cm/hr, k = 1.0/hr
REQD: Determine the losses due to infiltration in the pervious areas, also
ascertain the runoff assuming losses occur due to infiltration only

 ff = final infiltration capacity
 f0 = initial infiltration capacity
 k = exponential decay constant
 t = time from beginning of rainfall 06-87-471 Hydrology

EX 2 horton method
SOLU:
 here the computations are performed
using a Dt of 0.05 hr
 the average infiltration capacity fp during
a time interval is determined at the
midpoint of that interval (at t = 0.5 (t1 + t2))
 values of t are entered in (4), and [9] is
utilized to compute fp shown in (5)
 the infiltration rates f in (6) are the
smaller of fp and i
 the runoff in (7) is acquire via ie = i - f

 results are represented graphically on
the slide following
fp = ff + (f0 – ff) e-kt - [9]
87-323 Hydrology I
horton method
EX 2
SOLU:
 total depth of water lost due to infiltration

is F = Dt X Sf = 0.05 hr X 43.50 cm/hr =
2.18 cm
 similarly, the total rainfall excess is Dt X

Sie = 0.05 hr X 9.0 cm/hr = 0.45 cm
06-87-471 Hydrology

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RAINFALL ABSTRACTION COMPUTATION the basics

 to this point, we have discussed the weather, precipitation, methods to analyze

 abstractions include interception, surface depression storage, evaporation,

 rainfall excess or effective rainfall is computed as the total rainfall – abstractions

 this can be computed as the rate of rainfall – the rate of loss

 interception, infiltration, and depression storage are the primary types of

 empirical methods are used in practice to estimate losses due to interception

 one such empirical method was developed by Horton (1919)

 Horton suggested the expression

 here Li = interception in inches

 PT = total rainfall depth in inches

 Horton’s expression was later reanalyzed by Aron (1992), and he subsequently

 c and m = fitting parameters

 values of a, b, n, c, and m are shown in the table below

 though estimates of losses caused by interception storage can be significant in

 here ie = rate of effective rainfall (or rate of rainfall excess)

 f = actual rate of infiltration

 truly accurate evaluation of the infiltration process is a very daunting task, to do so

∂/ ∂z [KsKr ∂/∂z (z + p/g)] = f ∂S/∂p ∂p/∂t - [4]

∂/ ∂z [KsKr ∂/∂z (z + p/g)] = f ∂S/∂p ∂p/∂t - [4]

 here z = vertical distance above a horizontal datum

 Ks = saturated conductivity or permeability of the soil

 p = soil water pressure

 g = specific weight of water

 S = degree of saturation (ranging from zero (completely dry) to 1.0 (saturated))

 for us to solve this equation requires coupling it with linking relationships

∂/ ∂z [KsKr ∂/∂z (z + p/g)] = f ∂S/∂p ∂p/∂t - [4]

 to solve [4] a highly non-linear partial DE requires computational methods that

green and ampt model

 we suppose the soil in a

 we represent this with the

 as rainwater enters the soil the

green and ampt model

 this model approximates this

 above the wetting front the soil is

 that is to say that the model

green and ampt model

fp = [K(Z + Pf)] / Z - [5]

green and ampt model

fp = [K(Z + Pf)] / Z - [5]

 here fp = infiltration capacity

 K= hydraulic conductivity of the soil

 Pf = characteristic suction head of

 We note that in [5], the pressure

green and ampt model

 if the rate of rainfall is constant

tp = Pff (1-Si) / ((i2/K)-1) - [6]

green and ampt model

green and ampt model

green and ampt model

green and ampt model

green and ampt model

green and ampt model

DZ = fDt /(f(1-Si)) - [7]

 here f = rate of infiltration during the time interval

 Si = initial degree of saturation

 for discrete time intervals we obtain a relationship between Z and F as

green and ampt model

Rainfall rates are tabulated in (4) of the table supplied

green and ampt model

 fp we have in (6) is computed by way of [5]

fp = [K(Z + Pf)] / Z - [5]

EX 1 green and ampt model