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Pulse Waves
ENME806
Objectives
Understand and describe:
• Conservation of mass and momentum applied to tube flow
• Travelling wave phenomena
• Pulse wave velocity and arterial stiffness
• Clinical importance and mechanisms
• Distinction between PWV, fluid velocity and sound velocity
• Conservation of Mass
𝜕𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡] 𝜕𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡]
−𝑘 = 𝐴[𝑡]
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
• Conservation of Momentum
𝑓external 𝜕𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡] 𝜕𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡]
− =𝜌
𝐴[𝑡] 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
Pressure and Velocity: Travelling Waves
• At any point in time, may be
different at different locations
• At any location, may be
different at different times
(m/s)
T2
Time taken for FOOT OF THE pulse wave to get to CCA (T1)
Common femoral Time taken for FOOT OF THE pulse wave to get to CFA (T2)
artery (CFA) T (or Δt) = T2 – T1
Pulse Wave Velocity (PWV)
In the wave equation, c is the
wave speed:
𝐴[𝑡]
𝑐= = 𝑃𝑊𝑉
𝑘𝜌
PWV ~ 6 m/s is different to…
• Blood velocity: ≈ 0.5 m/s
• Speed of sound in the
𝛫𝑠
tissue: ≈ 1200 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌
where 𝛫𝑠 ≈ 109 is isentropic
bulk modulus.
Moens-Korteweg Equation for PWV
𝐴[𝑡]
𝑃𝑊𝑉 = is difficult to work with because it depends on factors other
𝑘𝜌
than material properties (pressure, area).
2ℎ2 𝜋𝛦 2 ⅆ03 ℎ2 𝜋𝛦 2 ⅆ02
𝑘→ _
3
, 𝐴[𝑡] →
(2ℎ𝛦 − ⅆ0 𝑝[𝑥]) (2ℎ𝛦 − 𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡]ⅆ0 )2
_ _
To simplify,
_ let 𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡] → δp[𝑥, 𝑡] + 𝑝[𝑥] where 𝑝 is chosen so δp is small,
and ⅆ is the corresponding diameter. Then:
ℎ𝛦
𝑃𝑊𝑉 = _
𝜌ⅆ
ℎ𝛦
Pulse wave velocity, 𝑃𝑊𝑉 = _
𝜌𝑑
• Affected by Young’s Modulus
i.e. arterial stiffness (AS)
• Region specific – also affected
by geometry
• Carotid-femoral PWV
(cfPWV) is an accepted
clinical measure of AS
• Independently predicts CVD
risk and mortality
• Assessed using applanation
tonometry (pressure wave) or
ultrasonography (velocity
wave)
Stiffness and Compliance
_ _
𝜋ⅆ 3 𝜋ⅆ 2
𝑘= =
4ℎ𝛦 4𝑃𝑊𝑉 2 𝜌
Kind of “inverse” of one
another.
Aging / disease causes:
• Thickening of the artery
wall
• Loss of elasticity of artery
wall material
• Lengthening of arteries
(and more tortuous route)
https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.03449
Fluid Displacement
Velocity of a fluid particle in terms of displacement:
𝜕𝛿[𝑥, 𝑡]
𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡] =
𝜕𝑡
Partial derivatives are then:
𝜕𝑣[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕2 𝛿[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕𝑣[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕2 𝛿[𝑥,𝑡]
= =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
Substitute into the tube conservation of mass/momentum equations
𝜕𝑝[𝑥,𝑡] 2 𝜕2 𝛿[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕𝑝[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕2 𝛿[𝑥,𝑡]
= −𝑐 𝜌 − = 𝜌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2
Equating forms a wave equation
𝜕 2 𝛿[𝑥, 𝑡] 𝜕 2 𝛿[𝑥, 𝑡]
𝑐2 2
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2
Displacement Waves
Solution to the displacement wave equation takes the form:
𝑥 𝑥
𝛿[𝑥, 𝑡] = 𝛿𝑏 [𝑡 + ] + 𝛿𝑓 [𝑡 − ]
𝑐 𝑐
Considering only a forward wave (𝛿𝑏 = 0), with 𝛿𝑓 = sin
Note:
• Wave speed is not the same as particle speed
• Pressure, velocity and displacement wave speeds are all equal
Characteristic Impedance, Z c
𝑍𝑐 = 𝑐𝜌
Using the displacement waves, we can show that:
𝑝𝑓 𝑝𝑏
= 𝑍𝑐 = −𝑍𝑐
𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑏
This allows us to find forward and backward components, given total
pressure and velocity:
1 1
𝑝𝑏 = 𝑝𝑡 − 𝑍𝑐 𝑣𝑡 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑝𝑡 + 𝑍𝑐 𝑣𝑡
2 2
1 𝑝𝑡 1 𝑝𝑡
𝑣𝑓 = + 𝑣𝑡 𝑣𝑏 = − + 𝑣𝑡
2 𝑍𝑐 2 𝑍𝑐
Wave Decomposition
Total
Forwards
Backwards