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Arterial Haemodynamics:

Pulse Waves
ENME806
Objectives
Understand and describe:
• Conservation of mass and momentum applied to tube flow
• Travelling wave phenomena
• Pulse wave velocity and arterial stiffness
• Clinical importance and mechanisms
• Distinction between PWV, fluid velocity and sound velocity

Understand and use:


• The solution to the wave equation
• Moens-Korteweg equation
• Characteristic impedance
• Wave decomposition
Flow in a tube
Consider a control
volume making its
way down a tube:
• Volume, V
• Cross sectional
area, A
• Length, l
• Density  x
• Fluid velocity at
one cross section,
v
Conservation of Mass (Volume)
𝜕𝑉[𝑡]
=0
𝜕𝑡
For a short cylindrical shape:
𝑉[𝑡] = 𝐴[𝑡]𝑙[𝑡]
Length is related to fluid velocity:
𝜕𝑙[𝑡]
= −𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡] + 𝑣[𝑥 + 𝑙[𝑡], 𝑡]
𝜕𝑡
Relationship between velocity and area:
𝜕𝐴[𝑡] 𝜕𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡]
− = 𝐴[𝑡]
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
Conservation of Mass with Tube Law
Relationship between velocity and area:
𝜕𝐴[𝑡] 𝜕𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡]
− = 𝐴[𝑡]
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
From previously, we found an expression from tube mechanics:
𝜕𝐴[𝑡] 𝜕𝑝[𝑡]
=𝑘
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Combining these:
𝜕𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡] 𝜕𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡]
−𝑘 = 𝐴[𝑡]
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
Conservation of Momentum

Summing forces (neglecting gravity)


𝜕 𝑉[𝑡] ℎ𝑉 [𝑡]
𝐴[𝑡]𝑝[0, 𝑡] − 𝐴[𝑡]𝑝[𝑙[𝑡], 𝑡] + 𝑓external 𝑙[𝑡] = න ⅆ𝑉
𝜕t 0 𝑉𝑉
Momentum is given by:
ℎ𝑉 [𝑡] = 𝜌𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑉 [𝑡]
After taking limits:
𝑓external 𝜕𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡] 𝜕𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡]
− =𝜌
𝐴[𝑡] 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
Flow in a tube: summary equations

• Conservation of Mass
𝜕𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡] 𝜕𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡]
−𝑘 = 𝐴[𝑡]
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

• Conservation of Momentum
𝑓external 𝜕𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡] 𝜕𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡]
− =𝜌
𝐴[𝑡] 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
Pressure and Velocity: Travelling Waves
• At any point in time, may be
different at different locations
• At any location, may be
different at different times

• Rate of change of one with


time is proportional to rate of
change of the other with
location
Solution methods
• Numerical solution of partial differential equations
• Derivation of explicit solution
Wave motion
From the previous equations we can derive:
𝜕 2 𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡] 𝐴[𝑡] 𝜕 2 𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡]
2
=
𝜕𝑡 𝑘𝜌 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕 2 𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡] 𝐴[𝑡] 𝜕 2 𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡]
2
=
𝜕𝑡 𝑘𝜌 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2 𝑦[𝑥,𝑡] 2 𝜕2 𝑦[𝑥,𝑡]
We note these are in the form of the wave equation = 𝑐
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2
with
𝐴[𝑡]
𝑐=
𝑘𝜌
Wave Motion
The wave equations are:
𝜕2 𝑝[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕 2 𝑝[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕2 𝑣[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕 2 𝑣[𝑥,𝑡]
= 𝑐2 and = 𝑐2
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2
The solution to these differential equations is:
𝑥 𝑥
𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡] = 𝑝backward [𝑡 + ] + 𝑝forward [𝑡 − ]
𝑐 𝑐
𝑥 𝑥
𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡] = 𝑣backward [𝑡 + ] + 𝑣forward [𝑡 − ]
𝑐 𝑐
• Show the solution works
• What does the solution mean?
Wave Motion
• Palpate your left carotid pulse with your left hand
• Palpate your left radial pulse with your right hand
• Sit quietly and palpate them simultaneously
• What are your thoughts? What do you feel?
Carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (cfPWV)
Common carotid D = 80% direct surface
artery distance between CCA &
(CCA) CFA
T1
Foot of the pulse
wave (start of
upstroke)

(m/s)

T2

Time taken for FOOT OF THE pulse wave to get to CCA (T1)
Common femoral Time taken for FOOT OF THE pulse wave to get to CFA (T2)
artery (CFA) T (or Δt) = T2 – T1
Pulse Wave Velocity (PWV)
In the wave equation, c is the
wave speed:

𝐴[𝑡]
𝑐= = 𝑃𝑊𝑉
𝑘𝜌
PWV ~ 6 m/s is different to…
• Blood velocity: ≈ 0.5 m/s
• Speed of sound in the
𝛫𝑠
tissue: ≈ 1200 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌
where 𝛫𝑠 ≈ 109 is isentropic
bulk modulus.
Moens-Korteweg Equation for PWV
𝐴[𝑡]
𝑃𝑊𝑉 = is difficult to work with because it depends on factors other
𝑘𝜌
than material properties (pressure, area).
2ℎ2 𝜋𝛦 2 ⅆ03 ℎ2 𝜋𝛦 2 ⅆ02
𝑘→ _
3
, 𝐴[𝑡] →
(2ℎ𝛦 − ⅆ0 𝑝[𝑥]) (2ℎ𝛦 − 𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡]ⅆ0 )2
_ _
To simplify,
_ let 𝑝[𝑥, 𝑡] → δp[𝑥, 𝑡] + 𝑝[𝑥] where 𝑝 is chosen so δp is small,
and ⅆ is the corresponding diameter. Then:

ℎ𝛦
𝑃𝑊𝑉 = _
𝜌ⅆ
ℎ𝛦
Pulse wave velocity, 𝑃𝑊𝑉 = _
𝜌𝑑
• Affected by Young’s Modulus
i.e. arterial stiffness (AS)
• Region specific – also affected
by geometry
• Carotid-femoral PWV
(cfPWV) is an accepted
clinical measure of AS
• Independently predicts CVD
risk and mortality
• Assessed using applanation
tonometry (pressure wave) or
ultrasonography (velocity
wave)
Stiffness and Compliance
_ _
𝜋ⅆ 3 𝜋ⅆ 2
𝑘= =
4ℎ𝛦 4𝑃𝑊𝑉 2 𝜌
Kind of “inverse” of one
another.
Aging / disease causes:
• Thickening of the artery
wall
• Loss of elasticity of artery
wall material
• Lengthening of arteries
(and more tortuous route)

https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.114.03449
Fluid Displacement
Velocity of a fluid particle in terms of displacement:
𝜕𝛿[𝑥, 𝑡]
𝑣[𝑥, 𝑡] =
𝜕𝑡
Partial derivatives are then:
𝜕𝑣[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕2 𝛿[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕𝑣[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕2 𝛿[𝑥,𝑡]
= =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
Substitute into the tube conservation of mass/momentum equations
𝜕𝑝[𝑥,𝑡] 2 𝜕2 𝛿[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕𝑝[𝑥,𝑡] 𝜕2 𝛿[𝑥,𝑡]
= −𝑐 𝜌 − = 𝜌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2
Equating forms a wave equation
𝜕 2 𝛿[𝑥, 𝑡] 𝜕 2 𝛿[𝑥, 𝑡]
𝑐2 2
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2
Displacement Waves
Solution to the displacement wave equation takes the form:
𝑥 𝑥
𝛿[𝑥, 𝑡] = 𝛿𝑏 [𝑡 + ] + 𝛿𝑓 [𝑡 − ]
𝑐 𝑐
Considering only a forward wave (𝛿𝑏 = 0), with 𝛿𝑓 = sin

Note:
• Wave speed is not the same as particle speed
• Pressure, velocity and displacement wave speeds are all equal
Characteristic Impedance, Z c
𝑍𝑐 = 𝑐𝜌
Using the displacement waves, we can show that:
𝑝𝑓 𝑝𝑏
= 𝑍𝑐 = −𝑍𝑐
𝑣𝑓 𝑣𝑏
This allows us to find forward and backward components, given total
pressure and velocity:
1 1
𝑝𝑏 = 𝑝𝑡 − 𝑍𝑐 𝑣𝑡 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑝𝑡 + 𝑍𝑐 𝑣𝑡
2 2

1 𝑝𝑡 1 𝑝𝑡
𝑣𝑓 = + 𝑣𝑡 𝑣𝑏 = − + 𝑣𝑡
2 𝑍𝑐 2 𝑍𝑐
Wave Decomposition

Total
Forwards
Backwards

• Note relationship between pressure and velocity components


• What is a negative backwards velocity wave?

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