Earthquakes

Lesson 1: Where Do Earthquakes Occur

and Types of Earthquakes/Faults

• This will go over where earthquakes

potentially can occur, as well as the different
type of earthquakes that include normal,
reverse, and strike-slip faults. This will
include the motions due to each fault as well
as elastic rebound theory.
• To study Earthquakes we first must know where
they possibly can occur.

• We typically find earthquakes near Faults

• Faults are fractures in rock along which

movement has occur. There are three different
kinds of faults that are: Normal, Reverse, and
Strike-Slip faults
 Normal Faults

• Normal Faults (also known as dip-slip)- obey

the laws of gravity
• They are caused by dilation (pulling apart)
• In this case, the “hanging wall” drops down
 Reverse Faults

• Reverse Faults (dip-slip or thrust faults)

• They are caused by compression
• In this case, they “footwall” drops down
 Strike-Slip Faults

• Strike-Slip Faults
• Strike-Slip Faults are caused by Sheer
• Nothing drops in this case, and land along
the fault moves in opposite directions

• There are two different types of strike slip

faults
 Right-Lateral Strike Slip Faults

• Right lateral- in relation to observation point

the land has moved to the right
 Left-Lateral Strike Slip Faults

• Left Lateral- in relation to observation point

the land has moved to the left
What Kind Of Fault Is This???
What Kind Of Fault Is This???
What Kind Of Fault Is This???
 Elastic Rebound Theory

• E.R.T is a result of the movement that causes

deformation
• Ruptures and Release of Energy (stored
energy is released at the point of rupture)
• Rocks “Rebound” to original unreformed
shape
 Earthquakes
• All the movement along the faults are driven
by the movement of plates

• Most Earthquakes are

found along plate
boundaries
Lesson 2 and 3:Types of Seismic Waves,
Ways to Measure Intensity, and The
Kinds of Waves that Different Types of
Earthquakes/Faults create

• Lesson 2: This section of the unit discusses the

different kinds of waves an earthquake generates,
and how those waves are measured and what they
mean. This also includes ways that we measure an
earthquake’s intensity.

• Lesson 3: This is more of a follow up to the previous

section, but this will focus on how we can tell what
type of earthquake has occurred based on
seismographs, this possibly will include how we
locate where an earthquake has occurred.
 Seismic Waves

• Seismic Waves are created by the rupture of

fault lines

• There are two sorts of waves, each with two

varieties
 Body Waves

• These move through the body of the earth

• There are P (primary) and S (secondary)

waves
 Primary Waves

• P waves (Primary Waves)

The fastest wave
Can move through any material
Are compression waves

(Example: Slinky)
 Secondary Waves

• S waves (Secondary Waves)

• Slower than P waves
• Can move through rigid
material (only solid)
• These are sheer waves
P and S Wave Motion
 Surface Waves

• Surface Waves

• These move on the surface of the earth

• They include Rayleigh and Love Waves

Rayleigh Waves and Love Waves (may or
may not be discussed)
• Rayleigh Waves
Are Slower
Have a vertical motion
• Love Waves
Have a horizontal motion
 How are Seismic Waves measured?
• Seismic Waves are recorded by a Seismograph which produces a
Seismogram

• (Side Note: as the wave gets further away from the focus. The P-wave
pulls ahead of the S-wave)

Using the P-S time interval we can determine the distance from the
earthquake

• This becomes a method for measuring distances from the station to

the epicenter.
 The Difference between the Focus and
Epicenter
• Focus- The place within the Earth where an
earthquake originates and energy is released

• Epicenter- The point on Earth’s surface

vertically above the focus.

What kind of fault is this??

 Motion Studies (may or may not be
discussed, compression and dilation)
• The first P wave tells us if there is
compression or dilation, and by using
seismographs we can tell which direction
faults are moving

• If there is Compression, the earth moves

down (seismogram shows an upward
movement)

• If there is Dilation, the earth moves up

(seismograph shows a downward
movement)
 The Movement of Faults and Their
Seismic Waves
• Normal Fault- compression p waves in all
directions/ dilation at the fault

The Force is Dilation

at the Fault

The P wave
expressed is
Compression
 The Movement of Faults and Their
Seismic Waves
• Reverse Fault- dilation p waves in all
directions/ compression at the fault

The Force is
Compression
at the Fault

The P wave
expressed is
Dilation
 The Movement of Faults and Their
Seismic Waves

• Strike-Slip Fault- both dilation and

compression p waves

• There are both forces of Dilation and

Compression, but they differ depending
on if the fault is left or right lateral
 The Movement of Faults and Their
Seismic Waves
• Left Lateral
 The Movement of Faults and Their
Seismic Waves
• Right Lateral
 How To Measure The Intensity of
Earthquakes

• One way is by using the Richter Magnitude

Scale

• This measures the amount of energy

released (uses distance and the amplitude of
a wave to get the magnitude)
Richter Magnitude Scale
 How To Measure The Intensity of
Earthquakes

• Another way is using the Modified Mercalli

Intensity Scale

• This is based on the amount of damage done

by earthquakes and what people experience
during them
The Mercalli Intensity Scale
 Lesson 4: Historical Earthquakes and
Possible Hazards and Damages Caused
by Earthquakes
• This section of the unit will be more group work/
project focused. The goal would be to discuss
possible hazards created by earthquakes, and the
possible damages that can be caused here.

• Students will be given the opportunity to point out

particular risks given aspects of information such as
fault location and possible hazards in the area, and
students will be given the opportunity to create their
own evacuation plan for an area of their choosing
(possibly fictional). Their plans will be presented
during class.
 Historical Earthquakes

• Earthquake off the west coast of North

Sumatra
• December, 2004
• Magnitude of 9.1
• 283,106 fatalities
– From earthquake
– And Tsunami
• Fourth largest earthquake
since 1900
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/2004_Indonesia_Tsunami_Complete.gif
 Historical Earthquakes
• Earthquake in India
• January 2001
• Magnitude of 7.7
• 20,023 fatalites
• 600,000 people were left homeless, 1
• Almost half the population of 37.8 million
afffected.
• Thousands of Cattle lost
• Losses recorded from $1.3 billion to $5
billion.
 Historical Earthquakes

• Earthquake in Turkey
• August of 1999
• 7.6 magnitude
• 17,118 fatalities

• Continuous
Aftershocks
• Devastating
Damages
 Historical Earthquakes

• Earthquake near Fiji Islands

• 1997
• Magnitude of 7.8
• Occurred in the water
• No Fatalities
 Causes of Earthquake Damage

• 1) Ground Shaking- (As a result of S-waves

and Surface Waves)

• 2) Liquefaction
– Loose, water-saturated sand
– Deformation jostles the grains
– Water in between the grains, surrounds the grains
so there is no friction
– Material is able to flow like a fluid
 Liquefaction
Demonstration!!!
 Causes of Earthquake Damage

• 3) Fault Movement

• 4) Landslides

• 5) Fires
 Causes of Earthquake Damage

• 6) Tsunamis- Great Waves

 Ways to Assess Earthquake Hazards

• 1) Observing Faults and the probability of

movement (likely to observe near costal
regions and mountainous regions)

• 2) Underlying Material (what are structures

and buildings built on)

(soft materials amplify seismic waves but is

slowed down)
 Earthquake Clips
• Taiwan and California Earthquake
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Y62Ti5_6s&feature=related

• Los Angeles, California Earthquake

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcoHJHo8d6k&feature=related

• California Earthquake
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0lAXStQCjr8&feature=related

• Peru Earthquake
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPsAcVLWtps&feature=related

• Kona, Hawaii Earthquake

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o7yThRfO9_4&feature=related
 In Class Discussion
• What hazards are seen in these clips?

• What are other possible hazards or

dangers in these areas?
 What is Resonance?
• resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate at
maximum amplitude at certain frequencies, known as the
system's resonance frequencies (or resonant
frequencies). At these frequencies, even small periodic
driving forces can produce large amplitude vibrations,
because the system stores vibrational energy. When
damping is small, the resonance frequency is
approximately equal to the natural frequency of the
system, which is the frequency of free vibrations.
Resonant phenomena occur with all type of vibrations or
waves; mechanical (acoustic), electromagnetic, and
quantum wave functions. Resonant systems can be
used to generate vibrations of a specific frequency, or
pick out specific frequencies from a complex vibration
containing many frequencies.
 Resonance and Earthquakes
Machines
– Many of the physical limitations of machines,
including vehicles and manufacturing plants,
are determined by their susceptibility and
resistance to vibrations.
– The most destructive vibrations are often
those at resonant frequencies of some part of
the machine.

Information from: http://oolong.co.uk/resonata.htm

 Resonance and Earthquakes
• Buildings
– The buildings which are most damaged by
earthquakes are often those unfortunate
enough to have a resonant frequency
matching the frequency of the quake.
– Tall buildings are built with structures and
dampers to resist the damage due to
resonance.

Information from: http://oolong.co.uk/resonata.htm

 Resonance and Bridges
• Bridges
– Armies are trained to break step when crossing
bridges; if they all marched in time, and their pace
happened to match a resonant frequency of the
bridge, there would be a serious danger of collapse.
– The Tacoma Narrows Bridge was ripped apart by a
complicated resonance effect, with the 40mph wind
forming periodic vortices which mutually reinforced
the turning motion of the bridge.

Information from: http://oolong.co.uk/resonata.htm

 Tacoma Narrows Bridge Video
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacoma_Narro
ws_Bridge

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mclp9
QmCGs
Types of Surfaces and
Earthquakes
 In-class activity: Building Your
Own Bridge
• http://www.newbaybridge.org/classroom/enginee
ringfor.html
• What geographical features can pose possible
hazards? (when building bridges, buildings etc?)
• Browse the website to learn about possible
bridge structures that can survive an earthquake
• What factors (devices) help prevent a bridge
from collapsing in an earthquake?
 Group Mini Project
• Taking two of the clips, design a possible
evacuation plan for the people living in the
area.

• Include the hazards that are present, and

ways to possibly avoid or prevent those
hazards
 Recap: Ways to Assess Earthquake
Hazards
• 1) Observing Faults and the probability of
movement (likely to observe near costal
regions and mountainous regions)

• 2) Underlying Material (what are structures

and buildings built on)

(soft materials amplify seismic waves but is

slowed down)
 Earthquake Clips
• Taiwan and California Earthquake
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Y62Ti5_6s&feature=related

• Los Angeles, California Earthquake

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcoHJHo8d6k&feature=related

• California Earthquake
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0lAXStQCjr8&feature=related

• Peru Earthquake
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPsAcVLWtps&feature=related

• Kona, Hawaii Earthquake

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o7yThRfO9_4&feature=related