Lecture-01

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

(EE-523)

Samiya Zafar
Assistant Professor, EED NEDUET
M.Engg Fall Semester 2017
 Books:

1. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications,

Fourth Edition By J. Lewis Blackburn, Thomas J.
Domin

2. Protective Relaying Theory and Applications By W.

A. Elmore

3. Power System Relaying, Fourth Edition By Stanley

H. Horowitz, Arun G. Phadke
 Sessional :

1. Tests—2 - 20 marks
2. Assignment -10 marks
3. Presentation -10 marks
=========
Total - 40 marks
 Google Group:

1. Group name : PSP2017

2. Group email address: psp-2017@googlegroups.com
3. Group Link:
https://groups.google.com/d/forum/psp-2017
 Course Outline:

1. Introduction; General Philosophy of power system

protection
2. Relay technologies
3. Protection of transmission lines and feeder
4. Protection of transformers and bus bars
5. Protection of generators and motors
INTRODUCTION TO
POWER SYSTEM
PROTECTION
Power System Protection…..
Electrical energy systems consists of various equipments
connected together. Typically, power is generated at lower
voltages (a few kV) (3-phase ac voltage source) which is
stepped up by a transformer and fed into a transmission grid.

A transmission grid is a meshed network of high voltage

lines (underground or overhead) and transformers. It can
have multiple voltage levels like 500 kV, 220 kV, etc.

The power is delivered to load centers which may be far off

(even thousands of km's apart).
This system has to be protected from abnormalities (For
example, A tree falling or touching an overhead line may cause
a fault. A lightning strike can cause insulation failure. Pollution
may result in degradation in performance of insulators which
may lead to breakdown. Under frequency or over frequency of
a generator may result in mechanical damage to it's turbine
requiring tripping of an Alternator) which is the task of
protection system.

Specially whenever human security is sacrificed or there

exists possibility of equipment damage, it is necessary to
isolate and de-energize the faulty equipment.
Planning System Protection……
One can design into the electric system, features that will:

1) Quickly isolate the affected portion of system and in this

manner maintain normal service for as much of system as
possible and minimize damage to affected portion of system

2) Provide alternate circuits, or automatic reclosing devices,

or both, where applicable, and in this manner minimize the
duration or the extent, or both, of supply and utilization
equipment outages.
 Elements of Power system to
be protected….
Transmission Line Protection and feeder protection

Transformer Protection

Generator Protection

Motor Protection

Bus bar Protection

 Objectives
The objectives of electrical system protection and
coordination are to prevent injury to personnel, to minimize
damage to the system components, and to limit the extent
and duration of service interruption whenever equipment
failure, human error, or adverse natural events occur on any
portion of the system.
Basic Protective Equipment….
The isolation of short circuits and overloads requires the
application of protective equipment that will both:

i) sense an abnormal condition and then

ii) remove the affected portion from the system.

In some types the sensing device and the interrupting

device are completely separate, interconnected only through
external control wiring.

In other types the sensing and interrupting functions are

combined in the same device.
A fuse is both a sensing and interrupting device. It is
connected in series with the circuit and responds to thermal
effects produced by current flow through it. Its fusible
element is designed to open at a predetermined time
depending on the amount of current that flows.

Circuit breakers are interrupting devices only and must be

used in conjunction with sensing devices to fulfill the
detection function. In the case of medium and high voltage
(hundreds of kV) circuit breakers, the sensing devices are
separate protective relays or combinations of relays.
 Components of a Typical
Protection System…….
Protective Relays

Current and Voltage Transformers

Circuit Breakers/Fuses

Communication Channels

DC Supply System

 Components of a Protection System

Protective Relays
The IEEE defines a protective relay as "a relay whose
function is to detect defective lines or apparatus or other
power system conditions of an abnormal or dangerous
nature and to initiate appropriate control circuit action"
(IEEE 100, 2000).
Formally, a relay is a logical element which processes the
inputs (mostly voltages and currents) from the
system/apparatus and issues a trip decision if a fault within the
relay's jurisdiction is detected.

A conceptual diagram of relay

Protective relays provide the brains to sense trouble, but as
low-energy devices, they are not able to open and isolate the
problem area of the power system.

Circuit breakers and various types of circuit interrupters,

including motor contactors and motor controllers, are used
for this and provide the muscle for fault isolation.

Thus, protective relays and circuit breaker-interrupting

devices are a team; both are necessary for the prompt
isolation of a trouble area or damaged equipment.
A protective relay without a circuit breaker has no basic
value except possibly for alarm. Similarly, a circuit breaker
without relays has minimum value, that being for manually
energizing or de-energizing a circuit or equipment.

Evolution of Relays:
Electromechanical Relays

Solid State Relays

Numerical Relays
Electromechanical relays have been used for years
and have established a reputation for simplicity,
reliability, security, low maintenance, and long life.

Devices of these types were in common use by 1930s

and cost a few hundred dollars.

However, in recent years, solid-state relays are being

used advantageously in some applications.
Some of the advantages are lower burden, improved
dynamic performance characteristics, high seismic-
withstand capability, and reduced panel space.

Many of the protection functions can be

accomplished equally well by either electromechanical
or solid-state relays. The specific application should
dictate which type of relay is used.
Electromechanical relays
Electromechanical relays have only two different operating
principles:

(1) electromagnetic attraction and

(2) electromagnetic induction.

Electromagnetic-attraction relays operate by having either a

plunger drawn by a solenoid or an armature drawn to a pole of
an electromagnet. This type of relay will operate from either an
ac or a dc current or voltage source and is used for
instantaneous or high-speed trips.
Electromagnetic-induction relays (disk or cup type) use the
principle of induction motor, where torque is developed by
induction into a rotor. This principle is used in a watt-hour
meter, where the rotor is a disk.

The actuating force developed on the rotor is a result of the

interaction of the electromagnetic fluxes applied and the flux
produced by eddy currents that are induced in the rotor.

 Induction type relays can only be used in ac applications.

Time overcurrent and time under/overvoltage relays
commonly are of the disk design, while cup (cylinder)
structures are often found in high-speed overcurrent,
directional relays, differential relays, and distance relays.
Solid State relays
The relays which do not use moving parts and use solid state
electronic components such as diodes, transistors etc. are
called static relays.

The circuits such as comparators, level detectors, zero

crossing detectors etc. are used in static relays for
measurement and comparison of electrical quantities.

The static relay is designed in such a way that whenever a

quantity under consideration exceeds a particular level, the
static circuit produces a response without any moving parts.
This response is then manipulated and given to a tripping
circuit which may be electronic or electromagnetic.

Basic Elements of a Static Relay

The Fig. shows block diagram of a static relay indicating basic

elements.
Input Element

The relaying quantity can be the output of C.T. or P.T. or it

may be the output of a transducer or combination of various
signals. Thus an electronic circuit such as rectifier is required as
an input element to get the input signal in a convenient form
before applying it to a measuring element. Some mixing
circuits such as op-amp adder may also be required as an input
element.
Measuring Element
This is the heart of static relay. It compares, the output of an
input element with a set value and decides the signal to be
applied to output element which ultimately drives the tripping
circuit. Thus measuring element is a deciding signal generator.
Measuring element can be a Single input, Two input or Multi-
input device.

Output Element
The signals obtained from measuring element are required to
be amplified before applying to the tripping circuit.
Thus output element is an amplifier. Sometimes this element
not only amplifies the signals but multiplies them or combines
them with other signals to delay them.

Feed Element
The measuring element uses electronic circuits consisting
transistors, diodes etc. The output element uses transistor as
an amplifier. All these components along with the tripping
circuit require dc supply for proper functioning. The feed
element provides the dc voltage required by various elements.
Advantages of Static Relays:
1. The moving parts are absent in the control circuit.
2. The burden on current transformers gets considerably reduced
thus smaller C.Ts can be used.
3. The power consumption is very low as most of the circuits are
electronic.
4. The response is very quick.
5. As moving parts are absent, the minimum maintenance is
required. No bearing friction or contact troubles exist.
6. The resetting time can be reduced and overshoots can be
reduced due to absence of mechanical inertia and thermal
storage.
7. The sensitivity is high as signal amplification can be achieved
very easily.
8. The use of printed circuits eliminates the wiring errors and
mass production is possible.
9. As electronic circuits can be used to perform number of
functions, the wide range of operating characteristics can be
obtained, which almost approach to ideal requirements.
10. The low energy levels required in the measuring circuits
make the relays smaller and compact in size.
11. The testing and servicing is simplified.
Limitations of Static Relays
With various advantages, the static relays also have the following
limitations,
1. The characteristics of electronic components such as
transistors, diodes etc. are temperature dependent. Hence
relay characteristics vary with temperature and ageing.
2. The reliability is unpredictable as it depends on a large number
of small components and their electrical connections.
3. These relays have low short time overload capacity compared
to electromagnetic relays.
4. Additional dc supply is required for various transistor circuits.
5. Susceptible to the voltage fluctuations and transients.
6. Less mechanically robust compared to electromagnetic relays.
Numerical Relays
Protective relays have undergone tremendous evolution over
the years. The microprocessor that was invented around 1971,
revolutionized the electronics scene in its entirety and the
development of a microprocessor-based relay followed soon
thereafter.
Other popular nomenclatures for such relays are digital relay,
computer-based relay or numerical relay. In numerical relays,
there is an additional entity, the software, which runs in the
background and which actually runs the relay.
With the advent of numerical relays, the emphasis has
shifted from hardware to software. Hardware is more or less
the same between any two numerical relays. What
distinguishes one numerical relay
from the other is the software.
So, The modern numerical relay
has evolved from a torque
balancing device to a programm-
-able information processor.
Block Diagram of a Numerical Relay
The signals from the CTs and PTs cannot be sampled without
anti-aliasing filter (a low-pass filter) and converted to the digital
form. This is to make sure that the signal does not contain
frequency components having a frequency greater than one
half of the sampling frequency.
Next, the analogue signal is sampled and held constant
during the time the value is converted to digital form.
The sampled and held value is passed on to the ADC through
a multiplexer so as to accommodate a large number of input
signals.
The sample and hold circuit and the ADC work under the
control of the microprocessor and communicate with it with
the help of control signals such as the “end-of conversion
signal” issued by the ADC.
The ADC passes on the digital representation of the
instantaneous value of the signal to the microprocessor via an
input port.
The output of the ADC may be 4, 8, 12, 16, or 32 bits wide or
even wider. The wider the output of the ADC, the greater its
resolution.
The incoming digital values from ADC are stored in RAM of
the microprocessor and processed by the relay software in
accordance with an underlying relaying algorithm.
The microprocessor issues the trip signal on one of the bits
of its output port which is then suitably processed so as to
make it compatible with the trip coil of the CB.
The relaying program or the relay software, which resides
in the EPROM, can only be upgraded or modified by
authorized personnel. Thus, new features and functionalities
can be added to an existing relay by upgrading its software.
Cont’d…..
Components of a Typical
Protection System…….
Protective Relays

Current and Voltage Transformers

Circuit Breakers/Fuses

Communication Channels

DC Supply System

 Instrument Transformers
Current and voltage
transformers form a very
important link between
power system and protective
system.
They basically extract
information regarding current
& voltage from power system
& pass it on to protective
relays.
While doing this, they also insulate the low-voltage
protective system from the high-voltage power system.
Current Transformers
A current transformer steps down line current into values
suitable for standard protective relays and isolates the relays
from line voltages.
The primary winding is connected in series with the circuit
carrying the line current to be measured, and the secondary
winding is connected to protective devices, instruments,
meters, or control devices.
The secondary winding supplies a current in direct proportion
and at a fixed relationship to the primary current.
The standard secondary
current ratings used in
practice are 5 A and 1 A.
In practice, there is always
some error involved in this
transformation. The error
creeps in, both the
magnitude and the phase
angle. These errors are
known as ratio error and
phase angle error.
It is said that current transformation ratio I2/I1 is equal to
turns ratio N1/N2. But actually the transformation ratio is not
constant and depends on load current, power factor of load
and exciting current of transformer.
Due to this fact, error is introduced in the measurements
done by the instrument transformers. Such an error is called
ratio error.
Similarly, Phase Angle Error is the Current phase shift
between Primary line current and secondary of CT which
results because of the magnetizing current drawn by the CT ,
which in turn depends on CT Burden.
Burden
Burden, in current transformer terminology, is the load
connected to the secondary terminals and is expressed either
as volt-amperes (VA) and power factor at a specified value of
current, or as total ohms impedance with the effective
resistance and reactive components.
The term burden is used to differentiate the current
transformer load from the primary circuit load. The power
factor referred to is that of the burden and not of the primary
circuit.