Student: Rafaela Ananii

PS: Major Topics in English Grammar
Professor: Dr. Véronique Lacoste
Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, SS 2010
 CONTENTS

1. Distinctions
2. Dynamic verbs
3. Stative verbs
4. Classifications
5. When are statives not statives?
6. Special cases
7. Verbs and other categories
8. References
 Ú NAMIC - STATIVE
PROGRESSIVE - NONPROGRESSIVE
± Distinctions between verbs can be made in terms of whether they admit the
aspectual contrast of ¶@
 · and ¶
@
 ·

± When verbs will not admit the progressive, as in (1), (2), (3), (4) they are called
stative. When they admit it, as in (5), (6), (7), (8) they are called dynamic.
4 (1) He is tall. (5)*He is being tall.
4 (2) He `esembles his mother. (6)*He is `esembling his mother.
4 (3) I  nt spaghetti. (7)*I m  nting spaghetti for dinner.
4 (4) It belongs to me. (8)*It is belonging to me.

± Sometimes, the opposition involves the terms ¶ · vs. ¶


·. But the term
¶action· has a more restricted sense , denoting a dynamic situation that requires
the involvement of an agent.
± There is also the distinction · · and ·
 ·

± As regards linguistic literature, ¶· and ¶@

· => dynamic situations:
4 ¶@

· = the internal structure of a dynamic situation
4 ¶· = a dynamic situation viewed as a single complete whole
± Ú

  

- For  , the scope of the event is the event seen as a

totality;
- For
, the scope of the event is its components.

± Ú

  
    à

ü
 are characterised by boundedness in time

ü   are unbounded in time. This prevents states from

being located within a time span:

*uete`  s  lking long the sho`e tice this mo`ning.

*uete`  s  lking long the sho`e fo` to hou`s this mo`ning.
*uete`  s  lking long the sho`e in to hou`s this mo`ning.
 Ú NAMIC VERBS (ACTION VERBS)

± have duration, that is, they occur over a limited time, which
may or may not have a defined endpoint, and may or may not
yet have occurred.
These distinctions lead to various forms related to tense and
spect. For example, a dynamic verb may be said to have:
4 m  @
if there is not a defined endpoint, or
4 @ 
  @
if there is a defined endpoint.

± may be used in both @
  and @  forms:

4 I   how to scuba dive when I was in Costa Rica.
4 I     how to scuba dive when I heard that you were coming.
± Dynamic verbs can refer to a sequence of separate events
(Present Perfect):
4 I h
e d`i
en sports cars for years.

± Dynamic verb senses can regularly occur in:

4 imperative sentences:
ëe `n how to swim.
*Kno how to swim
4 pseudo-cleft sentences:
What she did was (to) le `n Spanish.
*What she did was (to) kno Spanish.

± AAnything that is ¶dynamic· is concerned with energy or

forces that produce motion, as opposed to the idea of ¶static· A
± (Martha Kölln)
 STATIVE VERBS
± States have been referred to as something ongoing, if they are
seen from within.
± Statives show:
4 a single unbroken state of affairs.
4 a state of being
4 a mental state
4 an unchanging relationship
± Statives are different from dynamic verbs in both structure
and usage. Stative verbs are inert--static.
± A stative verb is often intransitive, while a corresponding
dynamic one would be transitive.
m
 
    
lay (something down) lie/be lying
set (something somewhere) sit/be sitting

stand (something in an stand

upright position)
CLASSIFICATION # 1

´ h   

´  
 

´ 
 
 
ü durative
ü punctual
h 

± states of ¶being· and ¶having·: be, cont in,
depend, h
e, `esemble

± intellectual states: belie
e, kno, `e lize, think,

unde`st nd

± states of emotion or attitude: [dis) g`ee,

[dis)like,  nt, ish

± states of perception: feel, he `, see, smell, t ste

± states of bodily sensation: che, feel sick, hu`t,

itch, tickle

 
 : lie, li
e, sit, st nd

 


m : taking place over a period of time

± activities performed by inanimate forces: (wind) blo,
(engine) `un, ` in, (watch) o`k

± activities performed by animate agents: d nce, e t, pl ,

sing, o`k

± processes (denoting change of state taking place over a

period): ch nge, dete`io` te, g`o, `ipen, iden.

± accomplishments (action or activity that has a goal or

endpoint): finish (the book), knit (a sweater), `e d (the
paper), `ite (an essay)
 @ 
 : with little or no duration
± momentary events and acts: b ng, jump, knock, nod,
t p
In the progressive, they indicate the repetition of the event:
e.g. He  s knocking on the doo`.
± transitional events and acts: ``i
e, die, d`on, l nd,
le
e, stop
In the progressive, they refer to a period leading up to the change of state:
e.g. The t` in is [no) ``i
ing t ul tfo`m 4.


: Stance verbs may be used with either the progressive or

the non-progressive, often with little to choose between the
variants. But sometimes they seem to be used with:
- the non-p`og`essi
e to exp`ess pe`m nent st te and
- the p`og`essi
e to exp`ess tempo` ` st te:
e.g. James li
es in Copenhagen. [permanent residence]
James is li
ing in Copenhagen. [temporary residence]
CLASSIFICATION # 2

´ h 
 

ü activity verbs
ü process verbs
ü verbs of bodily sensation
ü transitional events verbs
ü momentary verbs

´   
ü verbs of inert perception
and cognition
ü relational verbs
±


 
- Some may be virtually identical in meaning to simple tense
forms
4 I am begging you. I beg you.
4 I was learning French. I learned French.
4 They will be playing upstairs. They will play upstairs.

 m
   @


  @   
    m @

 


m 

   
  
± u

 
- Some may be virtually identical in meaning to
simple tense forms

- The corn is growing rapidly. The corn grows rapidly.

- Traffic is slowing down. Traffic slows down.


 m

  
 @m @

  m
     @

m 
 
 @ 
m
 m

±  

m
 


- I feel bad
- I am feeling bad
  

    

(virtually identical in meaning)
 ± 
  : progressive forms
indicate the beginning of an event, as opposed to the
present simple.

4 She was falling out of bed [when I caught her] as opposed to

4 She falls out of bed every night.

   
m m


2 

 : progressive forms indicate

little duration and suggest repetition and a one time
action.
2 She is hitting her brother.
2 He is jumping around the house.

 

 @

 @  @ @ 


 
m  @
±  
 u
@
 m




 m 

4 I detest rice with curry. *I am detesting rice with curry.
4 I prefer cinnamon toast. *I am preferring cinnamon toast.


m   m 

m
 m   @
 
  m
 
@ @   
m
@@ 
  

  @   @@

  
@  @  @@
  @ 

  m    @

 @
 
 
 
    

 

 
  m m  m

m 

   

m  
    

m@     


±
 
  
  
@@

  

I am sick. *I am being sick.

I own ten acres of land. *I am owning ten acres.
My brother owes me ten dollars. *My brother is owing me ten dollars.

@@





 





 
m @



  
   



  
m@m
   
m   
 m
 ã
 Ar
Stativ
V
rbs Not Stativ

± Some verbs which are generally stative may be used in the
progressive form if they:
h stress the immediacy of the action or the process of
enjoying/hating/understanding
4 lI am not hearing this!µ
4 AI am wishing I had gone to the party.µ
4 AI am feeling pleased with my job.µ
4 ADo you like the film? ~ I am LOVING this movie!µ

 indicate a development towards the static state

4 I am feeling unhappy about it.
(since states can also start and cease. The start or end of a
state is dynamic, since for a state to be started or stopped
something must come about to bring about the change into
or out of this state)
 giving a notion of temporariness or limited duration to the
state
4 Jack is ple sing his boss until bonus time.
4 I·m lo
ing every minute of this holiday.( active enjoyment)
4 How `e you liking the play? ~Well, it·s all right so far.
4 We e`e expecting visitors.
4 ou·`e looking pleased with yourself.
4 This holiday is costing me a lot.
4 I·m hoping to get a job.
_ adding greater emotive effect:
4 SheDs always buing far more vegetables than they can possibly
eat.
v showing a different meaning ² idiosyncratic uses
 Sp
ial Cas
s
Bot Us
s, Úiff
r
t M
ais

  

 






m  



m



BE My new boyfriend is a doctor There's no point acting this way.
and he  extremely nice. ou'  very silly about this.
HAVE He   sparkling blue eyes WeD  lunch at 2.
and wavy blond hair.
THINK 
you  I should tell I' of going to Mauritius
her what happened? for my next holiday.
SMELL His aftershave   of Why  you   the cream,
orange blossom. Richard? ~ I think it·s spoilt.
TASTE This cake   wonderful. I· the soup to see if it has
enough salt.
SEE I   her last night at the I·Steve in half an hour.
opera.
LOOK ou

 lovely today, Jane. She·

at the picture.
ADMIRE I m  your courage. They   m the view
when I arrived.
APPEAR Everything @@ m My aunt  @@ in a film
perfectly calm. next month.
 


FEEL He said he   that we How  you   today? ~ I'

weren't suited to one another   / I m
 very well.
after all.
MEAN I·m sure he m
  I'  to ask you this for
what he says. some time.
EXPECT I @
 you will be leaving George and Laura @
 a
soon. baby.
CARE It·s best that you m
 
 I·
for my sick sister this
about the opinion of others. week.
MEASURE He    40 inches Sue   for new curtains.
around his waist.
REACH Trees can 
 a height of 60 Mother   
for a spoon.
feet or more.
ENJO Hans 

 skiing. I·

every minute of this
thrilling experience.
IMPRESS The Grand Canyon @  John @ Lou with his
most people. magic tricks.
SURPRISE 6



R

R
 He   @ her with a

 
  diamond tonight.
ACT Jack
 strange sometimes. She  
in a play next
month.
 V
rbs a ot
r at
ori
s
± Most verbs in most contexts relate to action, activity, and to
temporary or changeable conditions:
4 The car st`uck a lamppost as I  s p `king it.
4 What aria did she sing last night?

± In contrast to verbs (which are normally dynamic), 



 m m
   in that they denote
phenomena or qualities regarded for linguistic purposes as
stable and indeed for all practical purposes permanent:
4 Jack is n enginee`.
4 Jack is
e` t ll.
± We can think of the difference between stative and
dynamic in terms of  m and 
 m qualities.
4 Two plus two equals four. Two plus two is equalling four.
´ ¶equ lsD = inert, stative, and cannot take the progressive; there is
no choice, no volition in the matter
± Compare the following Subject Complements:
4 Jesse is unpleasant tonight. Jesse is being unpleasant tonight.
4 Jesse is short. *Jesse is being short.
´ ¶unpleasant· is a condition that can change (dynamic adjective)
´ ¶short· is an inert or static condition (stative adjective)
´ Jesse isn·t choosing to be short, he just is.
´ He c n ch nge being unpleasant however.

± In the same way, 
 and @

 can be said to

exhibit willed and unwilled characteristics:
4 She is being a good worker
(because she chooses to be so)
4 She is (not is being) an Olympic athlete
(because she has already become)
 |
|  
± öuirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum. M StudentDs G` mm ` of
the English ë ngu ge. Longman: Essex England. 1995. (55-56)
± öuirk, Randolph, et. al. M G` mm ` of Contempo` ` English.
Longman: London. 1976. (39)
± Kölln, Martha. =nde`st nding English G` mm `. 4th Edition.
MacMillan: New ork. 1994. (89-90)
± http://www.annies-annex.com/dynamic_verbs.htm
± http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/progressive.htm
6
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