Computer networks

Department: Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Subject code: CS2361

Year: III
Unit: I
Title: Introduction to computer networks
Introduction to Computer Networks

Computer Networks
Computer network connects
two or more autonomous
computers.

The computers can be

geographically located
anywhere.
Introduction to Computer Networks

LAN, MAN & WAN

Network in small geographical Area (Room, Building or a
Campus) is called LAN (Local Area Network)

Network in a City is call MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Network spread geographically (Country or across Globe) is

called WAN (Wide Area Network)
Introduction to Computer Networks

Applications of Networks
Resource Sharing
Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
Software (application software)
Information Sharing
Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
Search Capability (WWW)
Communication
Email
Message broadcast
Remote computing
Distributed processing (GRID Computing)
Introduction to Computer Networks

Network Topology
The network topology
defines the way in which
computers, printers, and
other devices are
connected. A network
topology describes the
layout of the wire and
devices as well as the
paths used by data
transmissions.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Bus Topology
Commonly referred to as a
linear bus, all the devices
on a bus topology are
connected by one single
cable.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Star & Tree Topology

The star topology is the most
commonly used architecture in
Ethernet LANs.
When installed, the star topology
resembles spokes in a bicycle
wheel.
Larger networks use the extended
star topology also called tree
topology. When used with network
devices that filter frames or packets,
like bridges, switches, and routers,
this topology significantly reduces
the traffic on the wires by sending
packets only to the wires of the
destination host.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Ring Topology
A frame travels around the ring,
stopping at each node. If a node wants
to transmit data, it adds the data as
well as the destination address to the
frame.
The frame then continues around the
ring until it finds the destination node,
which takes the data out of the frame.
Single ring – All the devices on the
network share a single cable
Dual ring – The dual ring topology
allows data to be sent in both
directions.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Mesh Topology
The mesh topology
connects all devices
(nodes) to each other for
redundancy and fault
tolerance.
It is used in WANs to
interconnect LANs and for
mission critical networks
like those used by banks
and financial institutions.
Implementing the mesh
topology is expensive and
difficult.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Network Components
Physical Media
Interconnecting Devices
Computers
Networking Software
Applications
Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Media
Networking media can be
defined simply as the
means by which signals
(data) are sent from one
computer to another
(either by cable or wireless
means).
Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Devices
HUB, Switches, Routers,
Wireless Access Points,
Modems etc.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Computers: Clients and Servers

In a client/server network
arrangement, network
services are located in a
dedicated computer whose
only function is to respond
to the requests of clients.

The server contains the

file, print, application,
security, and other services
in a central computer that
is continuously available to
respond to client requests.
Introduction to Computer Networks

Networking Protocol: TCP/IP

Introduction to Computer Networks

Applications
E-mail
Searchable Data (Web Sites)
E-Commerce
News Groups
Internet Telephony (VoIP)
Video Conferencing
Chat Groups
Instant Messengers
Internet Radio
 Network Architecture
• Provides a general, effective, fair, and robust connectivity of
computers
• Provides a blueprint

– Types

• OSI Architecture
• Internet Architecture
 OSI ARCHITECTURE

• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model developed

by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) in 1984

OSI model defines the communications process into Layers

Provides a standards for communication in the

network

Primary architectural model for inter-computing and Inter networking

communications.

network communication protocols have a structure based on OSI Model

OSI Architecture
 Direct Links: Outline
• Physical Layer
– Link technologies
– Encoding

• Link Layer
– Framing
– Error Detection
– Reliable Transmission (ARQ protocols)
– Medium Access Control:

• Existing protocols: Ethernet, Token Rings, Wireless

 Link Technologies

• Cables:
– Cat 5 twisted pair, 10-100Mbps, 100m
– Thin-net coax, 10-100Mbps, 200m
– Thick-net coax, 10-100Mbps, 500m
– Fiber, 100Mbps-2.4Gbps, 2-40km
• Leased Lines:
– Copper based: T1 (1.544Mbps), T3 (44.736Mbps)
– Optical fiber: STS-1 (51.84Mbps), STS-N (N*51.84Mbps)
 Link Technologies

• Last-Mile Links:
– POTS (56Kbps), ISDN (2*64Kbps)
– xDSL: ADSL (16-640Kbps, 1.554-8.448Mbps), VDSL (12.96Mbps-
55.2Mbps)
– CATV: 40Mbps downstream, 20Mbps upstream
• Wireless Links: Cellular, Satellite, Wireless Local Loop
 FRAMING

• An efficient data transmission technique

• It is a message forwarding system in which data packets, called

frames, are passed from one or many start-points to one
 Approaches
• Byte oriented Protocol(PPP)
BISYNC
Binary Synchronous Communication
DDCMP
Digital Data Communication Message Protocol

• Bit oriented Protocol(HDLC)

• Clock based Framing(SONET)
 Byte oriented Protocol(PPP)

BISYNC FRAME FORMAT

SYH SYH SOH Header STX ETX CRC

Body

PPP Frame Format

Flag Address Control Protocol Payload Flag

DDCMP Frame Format

SYN SYN Class Count Header Body CRC

 Bit Oriented Protocol(HDLC)

• Collection of Bits
1.HDLC
High-Level Data Link Control

2.Closed Based Framing(SONET)

Synchronous Optical Network
 HDLC Frame Format
Beginning Header Body CRC Ending
sequence sequence

Bit Stufffing
After 5 consecutive 1s insert 0
Next bit is 0 – stuffed removed
Next bit is 1 –end of frame or erorr
 Closed Based Framing(SONET)

• STS-1 Frame
9 rows of 90 byte each
First 3 byte for overhead rest contains data
Payload bytes scrambled- exclusive OR
Supports Multiplexing

Payloads

9 rows

90 columuns
 ERROR DETECTION
• Detecting Errors In Transmission
Electrical Interference, thermal noise

Approaches
Two Dimensional Parity
Internet Checksum Algorithm
Cyclic Redundancy Check
 Two Dimensional Parity

7 bits of data 8 bits including parity

Number of 1s even odd

0000000 (0) 00000000 100000000

1010001 (3) 11010001 01010001

1101001 (4) 01101001 11101001

1111111 (7) 11111111 01111111

 Transmission sent using even parity:

• A wants to transmit: 1001

• A computes parity bit value: 1^0^0^1 = 0

• A adds parity bit and sends: 10010

• B receives: 10010 B computes parity: 1^0^0^1^0 = 0

• B reports correct transmission after observing expected even result.

 Transmission sent using odd parity:

• A wants to transmit: 1001

• A computes parity bit value: ~(1^0^0^1) = 1
• A adds parity bit and sends: 10011
• B receives: 10011
• B computes overall parity: 1^0^0^1^1 = 1
• B reports correct transmission after observing expected odd result.
 Reliable Transmission

Deliver Frames Reliably

Accomplished by Acknowledgements and Timeouts
ARQ-Automatic Repeat Request

Mechanism:
Stop and Wait
Sliding Window
Concurrent Logical Channels
 Stop And Wait ARQ
• The source station transmits a single frame and then waits for an
acknowledgement (ACK).

• Data frames cannot be sent until the destination station’s reply

arrives at the source station.

• It discards the frame and sends a negative acknowledgement (NAK)

back to the sender
• causes the source to retransmit the damaged frame in case of error
Acknowledgements & Timeouts
Sender Receiver Sender Receiver

Fram Fram
e e

Timeout

Timeout
Time
ACK ACK

Fram
e

Timeout
ACK

(a) (c)

Sender Receiver Sender Receiver

Fram Fram
e e
Timeout
Timeout

ACK
Fram
e
Timeout

Fram
e
Timeout

ACK
ACK

(b) (d)
 Stop & wait sequence numbers
Sender Receiver Sender Sender Receiver
Receiver

Timeout
Timeout

Timeout
Timeout

(c) (d)

(e)

• Simple sequence numbers enable the client to discard

duplicate copies of the same frame

• Stop & wait allows one outstanding frame, requires two

distinct sequence numbers
Stop And Wait
 Sliding Window
• bi-directional data transmission protocol used in the data link layer
(OSI model) as well as in TCP

• It is used to keep a record of the frame sequences sent

• respective acknowledgements received by both the users.

 Sliding Window: Sender
• Assign sequence number to each frame (SeqNum)
• Maintain three state variables:
– send window size (SWS)
– last acknowledgment received (LAR)
– last frame sent (LFS)
• Maintain invariant: LFS - LAR <= SWS
• Advance LAR when ACK arrives
• Buffer up to SWS frames  SWS
… …
LAR LFS
 Sequence Number Space
• SeqNum field is finite; sequence numbers wrap around
• Sequence number space must be larger then number of outstanding frames
• SWS <= MaxSeqNum-1 is not sufficient
– suppose 3-bit SeqNum field (0..7)
– SWS=RWS=7
– sender transmit frames 0..6
– arrive successfully, but ACKs lost
– sender retransmits 0..6
– receiver expecting 7, 0..5, but receives the original incarnation of 0..5
• SWS < (MaxSeqNum+1)/2 is correct rule
• Intuitively, SeqNum “slides” between two halves of sequence number space
 Sliding Window: Receiver

• Maintain three state variables

– receive window size (RWS)
– largest frame acceptable (LFA)
– last frame received (LFR)
• Maintain invariant: LFA - LFR  RWS
<= RWS

… …
LFR LFA

• Frame SeqNum arrives:

– if LFR < SeqNum < = LFA accept
– if SeqNum < = LFR or SeqNum > LFA discarded
• Send cumulative ACKs – send ACK for largest frame such that all
frames less than this have been received
 Ehernet
• local-area network (LAN) covered by the IEEE
802.3.
• two modes of operation:
– half-duplex
– full-duplex modes.
.
Three basic elements :
1. the physical medium used to carry Ethernet signals between
computers,
2. a set of medium access control rules embedded in each
Ethernet interface that allow multiple computers to fairly
arbitrate access to the shared Ethernet channel,
3. an Ethernet frame that consists of a standardized set of bits
used to carry data over the system
IEEE 802.5 Format
Frame Format IEEE 802.5
IEEE 802.3 MAC Data Frame Format
 Wireless

• The process by which the radio waves are propagated through air
and transmits data

• Wireless technologies are differentiated by :

• Protocol
• Connection type—Point-to-Point (P2P)
• Spectrum—Licensed or unlicensed
 Types
• Infrared Wireless Transmission
– Tranmission of data signals using infrared-light
waves
• Microwave Radio
– sends data over long distances (regions, states,
countries) at up to 2 megabits per second (AM/FM
Radio)
• Communications Satellites
– microwave relay stations in orbit around the earth.
 UNIT III Packet Switching

• Is a network communications method

• Groups all transmitted data, irrespective of content, type, or structure
into suitably-sized blocks, called packets.
• Optimize utilization of available link capacity
• Increase the robustness of communication.
• When traversing network adapters, switches and other network nodes
• packets are buffered and queued, resulting in variable delay and
throughput, depending on the traffic
 Types
• Connectionless
• each packet is labeled with a connection ID rather than
an address.
• Example:Datagram packet switching
• connection-oriented
– each packet is labeled with a destination address
– Example:X.25 vs. Frame Relay
Star Topology
 Source Routing
0 Sw itch 1
0
3 1
3 1
2 Sw itch 2
2 3 1 2
3 0 1 1 3 0
0

Host A

0 1 3

0 Sw itch 3
1 3

Host B
2
 Virtual Circuit Switching
• Explicit connection setup (and tear-down) phase
• Subsequence packets follow same circuit
• Sometimes called connection-oriented model

0 Switch 1
3 1
2 Switch 2
2 3 1
5
11
0
 Analogy: phone
call Host A

7
 Each switch 0 Switch 3
maintains a VC 1 3
4
table 2 Host B
 Datagram Switching
• No connection setup phase
• Each packet forwarded independently
• Sometimes called connectionless
Host D
model

 Analogy: postal 3
0 Switch 1
1
Host E
Host F
system 2 Switch 2
Host C 2 3 1

 Each switch 0
maintains a Host A
forwarding
(routing) table
Host G 0 Switch 3 Host B
1 3

Host H
 Virtual Circuit Model
• Typically wait full RTT for connection setup before sending first
data packet.

• While the connection request contains the full address for

destination
• each data packet contains only a small identifier, making the
per-packet header overhead small.

• If a switch or a link in a connection fails, the connection is

broken and a new one needs to be established.

• Connection setup provides an opportunity to reserve resources.

 Datagram Model
• There is no round trip delay waiting for connection setup; a
host can send data as soon as it is ready.

• Source host has no way of knowing if the network is capable of

delivering a packet or if the destination host is even up.

• Since packets are treated independently, it is possible to route

around link and node failures.

• Since every packet must carry the full address of the

destination, the overhead per packet is higher than for the
connection-oriented model.
 Bridges and Extended LANs
• LANs have physical limitations (e.g., 2500m)
• Connect two or more LANs with a bridge
– accept and forward strategy
– level 2 connection (does not add packet header)

A B C

Port 1
Bridge
Port 2

• Ethernet Switch = Bridge on Steroids X Y Z

 Spanning Tree Algorithm
• Problem: loops A

B
B3
C B5

D B7
B2 K

E F

B1

G H

B6 B4
I
J

• Bridges run a distributed spanning tree algorithm

– select which bridges actively forward
– developed by Radia Perlman
– now IEEE 802.1 specification
 Algorithm Details
• Bridges exchange configuration messages
– id for bridge sending the message
– id for what the sending bridge believes to be root bridge
– distance (hops) from sending bridge to root bridge
• Each bridge records current best configuration message for
each port
• Initially, each bridge believes it is the root
 Algorithm Details
• Bridges exchange configuration messages
– id for bridge sending the message
– id for what the sending bridge believes to be root bridge
– distance (hops) from sending bridge to root bridge
• Each bridge records current best configuration message for
each port
• Initially, each bridge believes it is the root
Thank u