RF and Radio Technology Fundamentals

Proxim Product Training Class
Tsunami MP.11
Radio Frequency (RF) and

Radio Technology Fundamentals
Wireless Point to Point
 One location to one location

 Dedicated access
 Full bandwidth between two locations
Unwiring the Network

Point-to-Multipoint (PTMP, PMP)
 One location to many locations;

Many locations to one location
 Shared access
 Shared bandwidth between multiple locations
Indoor Wireless LAN
Outdoor Point-to-Multipoint

Basic wireless communications
system
 Wireless communication systems consist basically out of the following

elements:
 Radio (Transmitter and receiver), the active part
 Feeder line (cable)
 Antenna, the passive part
Path
Antenna Propagation Antenna
Feeder line Feeder line
Radio Radio
(Transmitter) (Receiver)

Basic antenna operation
 Electrical signal, fed into antenna, can

produce a standing wave, when the
antenna matches the wavelength
 Electromagnetic waves spread out at

90° from the electric standing wave on
the antenna (wave-fronts) as result of
the current flowing through the antenna
v
 On the receive antenna the waves
i v’ translate to an electrical signal in the
antenna
Transmitter Receiver

Hertz: Measurement of Frequency
 Waves are cyclic in nature and cycle frequency is expressed in Hertz

 1 Hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle/second
 1,000 Hz = 1 kHz
 1,000,000 Hz = 1 MHz
 1,000,000,000 Hz = 1 GHz
time
period
(cycle)
Wavelength
 Electromagnetic waves travel with speed of light = 3 x 108 meter/sec

 Wavelength = the distance required to complete one cycle at a particular
frequency
 The distance from Point A to Point B represents one wavelength
 Wavelength is normally measured relative to meters (such as cm, or mm)
 Wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency :
v = f * l = 3 * 108 (speed of light)
f = frequency
l = Wavelength
12.5 cm (for 2.4 GHz)
5.6 cm (for 5.4 GHz)
A B

Basic loss formula
 Signal loses strength when traveling

 Propagation Loss formula:
l 2
PR  PT  G ( 4 d
)
 d = distance between Tx and Rx antenna [meter]

 PT = transmit power [mW]
 PR = receive power [mW]
 G = antennae gain
Pr ~ 1/(f * D)2 which means 2 x Frequency = 1/4 Power

2 x Distance = 1/4 Power

Watts and decibels: measurement
of power
 The essential element of propagation is the amount of power received (Pr) in

relation to the power that was transmitted (Pt)
 Because most (90%) of the energy is lost at 1 meter distance of the
transmitting antenna, the value of the Pt is very low compared to Pr
 Using a logarithm scale it is easier way to express ratio’s when the one of the
numbers have a large dynamic range
 The dB (decibel) relative measurement to describe relationship (ratio)
between two entities and uses a generic logarithm scale:
 1dB = 10 * log (entity-1/entity-2)
 Example: Propagation loss or attenuation (Pr / Pt)
 Pt = 0.1 W = 100 mW
 Pr = 0.000000001 W = 1 nanoWatt
 -> Pr/Pt = 0.000000001 / 0.1 = 0.00000001
 In dB: 10 * log (0.000000001 / 0.1) = -80 dB

of power
 dBm express absolute output power as they are relative to an output power
level equal to 1mW:
 dBm = 10 Log (mW/1)
 Pt = 1 mW = 0 dBm
 Pt = 250 mW = 24.0 dBm
 Pt = 32 mW = 15 dBm
 Typical Receiver Sensitivity Pr = -90 dBm
Conversion equations
x(dbm) = 10logy(mW)
y(mW) = 10x(dBm)/10
 dBm to mw Conversion tool

of power
100 W 50 dBm
10 W 40 dBm
2W 33 dBm
1W 30 dBm
100 mW 20 dBm
1 mW 0 dBm
100 uW -10 dBm
0.001 nW -80 dBm

Important Gain Values in dB (some
rules of thumb)
1/2 x Power (in mW): 10log1/2 = -3 dB
2 x Power (in mW) : 10 log 2 = 3 dB
1/4 x Power (in mW): 10 log 1/4 = -6 dB
4 x Power (in mW): 10 log 4 = 6 dB
Since it requires FOUR times the power to double the distance - 2 X

Distance = - 6 dB

Power and Directivity
 Without obstructions and with high intensity and beam focus, RF can travel
long distances, and determined by:
 Power is measure of strength
 Characteristic of the transmitter
 Gain is measure of directivity
 Characteristic of the antenna

Concept: Microwaves Behave
Similar to visible Light & Sound
 They propagate in air similar to light and sound

 Reflect off surfaces
 Absorbed by surfaces
 Diffuse and refract through substances
Transmitting source
(e.g., car headlight)
Signal is more concentrated
Point A Point B at Point A than at Point B

RF Refraction and Scattering
 RF can pass through materials which will change it’s direction of travel
(called ‘refraction’)
 RF can pass through materials which will diffuse the energy (scatter) to a
wider beam
Away from
Air (medium 1) Perpendicular
Observer
Apparent
Position
Water (medium 2)
Actual Position

Reception:RF ~ Vision:Light
 Reception of RF can be affected by “vision-related” components

 “Blinders”
 Angle of attack
 Focus
 Obstructions
 Weather

Obstructions Will Stop or Seriously
Attenuate Signals
 Some RF can travel easily through

walls, stone, etc. and some will be
immediately dampened
 Partial obstructions can dramatically
reduce wave energy

RF is Attenuated by Rainfall
 Signals above 11 GHz can be

severely affected
 Most of Proxim’s products operate
11GHz
below 6 GHz and are virtually
Cloudburst
unaffected by rainfall in most parts
=7dB/mile of the world
6GHz
Cloudburst

Phase
 The location of the traveling wave at a fixed point in time

 Measured in degrees or radians, related to Pi ()
 360 Degrees = 1 Cycle
> 2 Radians = 360°
90°
> 57.3° = 1 Radian
0° 180° 360°
270°

The Importance of Signal Phase
Best Case: Even number of ½ Wavelengths
x
_
2x
_
-x
_
+ =
x
_
-2x
_
-x _

The Importance of Signal Phase
Worst Case: Odd number of ½ Wavelengths
x
_
-x
_
+ =
x _
-x _

RF Reflection and Multipath
 RF can “bounce” off objects like

buildings and mountains, water and
atmosphere
 Different paths of RF will arrive at
destination at different times - this is
called ‘multipath’

Reflections
 Signals arrive 180° out of phase ( 1/2 l) from reflective surface

 Cancel at antenna - Try moving Antenna to change geometry of link - 6cm is
the difference in-phase to out of phase

Reflections
 Reflections can come from ANYWHERE - behind, under, in-front

 6 cm difference can change Path geometry

Line-of-Sight (LOS)
 No obstructions between each end

 No trees
 No buildings
 No mountains
 Can you go through a window?
Probably, but with added losses that are hard to predict:
» Plan on 10dB as an initial guess, can be greater for reflective
(metallic) tinted glass
 Note: The lower the frequency, the better it will travel through obstacles

The First Fresnel Zone
• The Fresnel zone is additional path clearance that is required to optimize

radio reception
• There are an infinite number of points where reflected signal arrives
exactly ½ wavelength out of phase for a given frequency
First
Fres
nel Z
Direct
Path =
one
L
Reflec
ted pa
th = L
+ l/2
Food Mart

Free space versus non free space
 Non-free space (Line of Sight)

 Line of sight required
 Objects protrude in the fresnel
zone, but do not block the path
 Free Space (Radio Line of Sight)

 Line of sight
 No objects in the fresnel zone
 Antenna height is significant
 Distance relative short (due to
effects of curvature of the earth)

The Line-of-Sight Issue - raising one
side
 A structure can be erected to establish line-of-sight over obstacles

The Line-of-Sight Issue – raising two
sides
 Two structures can be erected to establish line-of-sight over obstacles

The Line-of-Sight Issue – using a
repeater
 A system approach called a “repeater” can establish line-of-sight to go

around or over obstacles
 Active repeaters (two radio systems back-to-back)
 Passive repeaters (one radio system redirected)

Basic antenna operation
 Electrical signal, fed into antenna, can

produce a standing wave, when the
antenna matches the wavelength
 Electromagnetic waves spread out at

90° from the electric standing wave on
the antenna (wave-fronts) as result of
the current flowing through the antenna
v
 On the receive antenna the waves
i v’ translate to an electrical signal in the
antenna
Transmitter Receiver

Antenna gain
 Signal Gain comes from concentrating

signal in certain directions, signal is
“stolen from null areas
.  Gain is expressed in dBi (as it is
compared to the gain of the Isotropic
antenna)
Isotropic perfect Antenna sphere shape (0
dBi). energy is spread over sphere of  Gain increase will improve the
radiation, All Signals even
coverage distance
Null
 Gain can be in one direction
(directional antenna) or in 360 degree
2 dB Gain “circle” (omni- directional antenna)
1/4 l Dipole - simple Antenna “donut”

shape 0 dBd = 2 dBi. Signals
concentrated in Horizontal Plane

Antenna Polarization
 Polarization describes the orientation of the E (electrical) and H (magnetic)

components of an RF wave front.
 Linear polarization (horizontal, vertical, slant linear)
 Circular polarization (right-hand, left hand)
 RF can be transmitted (and received) with dominant polarization
 Polarization provides a level of discrimination (attenuation) against different
polarization signals, especially “opposite” polarization (e.g. horizontal versus
vertical)
 Weather and multipath can “de-polarize” RF

Antenna Polarization
 Rotating the antenna around its axis

Electrical
Field - will change the polarity of the signal
Electrons
in motion
Magnetic  In some cases a rotation can improve
Field
the quality of the link if other outdoor
links are present in the same area
Radio signal Radio signal
In Out
Vertically Polarized
Horizontally Polarized

Directional antenna types
Yagi
 1 Reflector
 Directors
 More Directors - Higher gain
1/4 l  1 director = 8dBi

dipoleActive
Element  15 directors = 14 dBi
 Sometimes hidden in enclosure
1/4 l X 1/4 l
infinite dipoles Patch
Active Element
 1/4 l plate conductor on reflector
 6dBi

Parabolic
 Parabolic reflector focus signal
1/4 l dipole  Larger Reflector - more gain

Active
Element  25 cm - 15dBi
 1 m X 50 cm - 24 dBi
 1 m full - 27 dBi
 2m full - 31 dBi
 3m full - 37 dBi
Multiple element patch
 4 element - 12 dBi
 12 element - 17 dB
Sectoral
 Sectoral Dipole Array
 Multiple dipoles arranged to give
 large Azimuth pattern for horizontal

coverage
 12 dBi - 120°
 16 dBi - 90°
Multiple 1/4 l dipole

Active Elements

Polar Diagram - Parabolic
TA-2308 TA-2308
Elevation Pattern Azimuth Pattern
0
0
-15
-15
-20
-20
-30
-30
270 0 -3 -6 -10 dB 90
270 0 -3 -6 -10 dB 90
180
180

Polar Diagram - Parabolic
Directional Antenna
Horizontal 24.4dBi at 2.433GHz

Vertical 24.42dBi at 2.466GHz
0
-15
-20
-15
-30 -20
270 0 -3 -6 -10 dB 90
-30
270 0 -3 -6 -10 dB 90
180
180

Polar Diagram - Sector
TA-2304-120-T0 TA-2304-120-T0
Azimuth Pattern Elevation Pattern
0
0
-15
-15
-20
-20
-30
-30
270 0 -3 -6 -10 dB 90
270 0 -3 -6 -10 dB 90
180
180

Antenna Specifications
 Gain in dBi
 Pattern , Azimuth (Horizontal) and Elevation (Vertical) shown in Polar
diagram dB loss per angle
 Impedance at operating Frequency (50 ohms)
 Bandwidth, gain vs frequency graph
 Front to back ratio - signal behind a directional antenna
 Mechanical properties, weather resistance, mounting methods

Terrain Effects on RF
 Mountainous terrain is best

 Many multipath reflections will not
reach the other end, thus reducing
the potential for out-of-phase
reflected signals that may have
degraded the integrity of the direct
signal
 Flat, smooth terrain is worst
 Many multipath reflections may reach
the other end, thus increasing the
potential for out-of-phase reflected
signals that may degrade the integrity
of the direct signal

Climate Effects on RF
 Humid climate is worst

> More moisture = more ducting and refraction = more attenuation
 Dry climate is best
> Reduced moisture = less ducting and refraction = less attenuation

Overall Spectrum
AM
Radio UHF TV Remote Controls
550 - 1700kHz 460-600MHz 100GHz-500THz Medical X-ray
VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF Infrared Visible UV X Gamma Cosmic
FM Radio
Sound 88-108 MHz Light
20Hz - 20kHz VHF TV 700THz - 1000THz
54-220 MHz
Cellular 800-900 MHz

PCS 1.8-2 GHz
Terrestrial Microwave 1–18 GHz
Indoor Wireless 900 MHz, 2 & 5 GHz

Types of Spectrum
 License-exempt
 Anyone can use
 No coordination or registration required
 Opportunity for interference, which the user must work around
 Local rules apply and need to be followed:
 EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power) limititations
 Frequency Channel definitions (width of the channel, what channels to use etc.)
 Radar avoidance
 Licensed (or ‘Leased’)

 Coordination required
 Registration required
 Interference is better controlled, but not completely eliminated
 Regulatory agency will assist with any interference cases
 Owned
 Purchased spectrum, usually in a given region, usually by auction
 Owner needs to self-coordinate intra-system interference potential
 Some coordination may be needed with neighboring owners

Primary European License Exempt
Bands 2.4 – 2.4835 GHz band
 Rules by ETS 300-328

 Used by 802.11b, 802.11g or proprietary products
 Available Indoor and Outdoor
 Max EIRP : 100 mW (20 dBm)
 13 Channels
 Only 3 non overlapping (Channel 1, 6 and 11)
 Approved in every Western Europe country
 Outdoor limitation in France
 100 mW for channel 1 to 7 (2.4 – 2.454 GHz)
 10 mW for channel 8 to 13 (2.454 – 2.4835 GHz)
 Proxim Orinoco AP 700, AP 4000

 Proxim Tsunami MP 2411, MP 2454r

 Rules by ETS 301-893 and 301-489

 Used by 802.11a products
 Available Indoor only
 Requires Transmit Power Control (TPC)
 If not, then max EIRP down to 100 mW (20 dBm)
 4 Channels

 Rules by ETS 301-893 and 301-489

 Used by 802.11a products
 Available Indoor only
 If not, then max EIRP down to 100 mW (20 dBm)
 Requires Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS)
 4 Channels
 Approved in some Western Europe country
 UK, Germany, France, Spain and Netherlands

 Rules by ETS 301-893 and 301-489

 Used by 802.11a or proprietary products
 Available Outdoor only
 Max EIRP : 1 W (30 dBm)
 11 Channels
 Approved in almost every Western Europe country
 Except France (under investigation by ART)
 Limited to mobile client in the UK
(fixed link need to use 5.725 – 5.850 GHz band)
 Proxim Tsunami MP 5054, MP 5054r

 Rules by UK regulation
 Used by 802.11a or proprietary products
 Max EIRP : 2 W (33 dBm)
 5 Channels
 Approved in the UK only for fixed link
 European Union investigating expanding UK experiment to all Europe, up to 4 watt
 Proxim Tsunami MP 5054, MP 5054r (UK model)

 Rules by ETS 300-440 (Short Range Device)

 Used by proprietary point to point products
 Proxim Tsunami GX 32 (low power), GX 90 (low power)

The Concept of Interference
 Interference is the reception of signals from sources other than the intended
source
 The source of the interference may be from a closer and/or stronger signal level
compared to the desired signal impacting the ability of the system to receive the
desired signal properly
 Interference can be caused by energy that is at the same frequency as the
signal that you wish to receive, or can be at a nearby frequency with enough
energy to ‘leak’ into the receiver
 Interference can also be caused by energy that is a completely different
frequency from that which you wish to receive. High-powered transmitters can
radiate ‘harmonics’ where they are also inadvertently transmitting energy that
is a multiple of the intended transmitter frequency

Methods of Two-Way
Communications
 Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)

> Communications in one direction are at a different frequency than in the
other direction, transmitting and receiving in both directions at the same
time
 Can establish high speeds in both directions (usually equivalent
speed)
 No substantial time delays (latency) for communication, as no
information is buffered
 The difference in frequency can be small (a few MHz) or large (100’s
of MHz), in the same frequency band or different bands altogether
 Time Division Duplex (TDD – or ‘Ping Pong’)
> Communications in one direction are at a different time than in the other
direction, transmitting and receiving at the same frequency but in
succession
 Can provide unbalanced communications when desired (e.g. more
download than upload, or variable to demand)
 Has an impact on latency
Connected or Connectorized
Antenna
 Some Proxim products have built-in antennas that cannot be removed or

bypassed
 Some Proxim products have built-in antennas that can be bypassed and an
alternate antenna connected instead
 Some Proxim products do not have a built-in antenna
 an “external” antenna must be connected
Connected Antenna Configurations Connectorized Antenna Configurations

One-Piece and Two-Piece
Construction
 For Proxim’s outdoor wireless solutions, one

end of the radio system is made up of one or
two distinct boxes
> One-piece radios Indoor
 Are designed for all-indoor mounting
(or mounting in a weatherproof container)
> One piece radios Outdoor
 Rugged housing 2-piece configuration
> Two-piece radios
 give the flexibility of mounting part of the
system closer to the antenna and part
inside
1-piece configuration

What Governs Distance or
Coverage?
 The radio’s technology (sometimes)

 The “strength” of the transmitted signal
 The radio’s ‘threshold’ specifications
 The radio’s frequency of operation
 Output power regulations
 Obstacles between the end points
 Climate/Terrain
 The antenna pattern

Basic Distance Planning:
a series of Gains and Losses
Antenna Path Antenna

(Gain) (Loss) (Gain)
Transmission Transmission
Line (Loss) Line (Loss)
RSL
Radio Radio
(Output Power) (Threshold)

Understanding “System Gain” &
“Fade Margin”
 System Gain
 The difference between the output
Output
power and the threshold
Power
 Fade Margin
 The difference between the received
signal level and the threshold
System
Gain
Received Signal Level (RSL)

Fade
Margin
Threshold

Understanding “Availability”
 The predicted amount of time the system will be operating above threshold
 Availability is the primary design criteria for outdoor wireless systems
Examples:
99.999% = 5.26 minutes/year outage

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Proxim Product Training Class

Radio Frequency (RF) and

 One location to one location

Unwiring the Network

 One location to many locations;

Indoor Wireless LAN

Unwiring the Network

 Wireless communication systems consist basically out of the following

Feeder line Feeder line

Unwiring the Network

 Electrical signal, fed into antenna, can

 Electromagnetic waves spread out at

Unwiring the Network

 Waves are cyclic in nature and cycle frequency is expressed in Hertz

 Electromagnetic waves travel with speed of light = 3 x 108 meter/sec

Unwiring the Network

 Signal loses strength when traveling

 d = distance between Tx and Rx antenna [meter]

Pr ~ 1/(f * D)2 which means 2 x Frequency = 1/4 Power

Unwiring the Network

 The essential element of propagation is the amount of power received (Pr) in

Unwiring the Network

 dBm to mw Conversion tool

Unwiring the Network

0.001 nW -80 dBm

1/2 x Power (in mW): 10log1/2 = -3 dB

2 x Power (in mW) : 10 log 2 = 3 dB

1/4 x Power (in mW): 10 log 1/4 = -6 dB

4 x Power (in mW): 10 log 4 = 6 dB

Since it requires FOUR times the power to double the distance - 2 X

Unwiring the Network

Unwiring the Network

 They propagate in air similar to light and sound

Unwiring the Network

Unwiring the Network

 Reception of RF can be affected by “vision-related” components

Unwiring the Network

 Some RF can travel easily through

Unwiring the Network

 Signals above 11 GHz can be

Unwiring the Network

 The location of the traveling wave at a fixed point in time

Unwiring the Network

Best Case: Even number of ½ Wavelengths

Unwiring the Network

Worst Case: Odd number of ½ Wavelengths

Unwiring the Network

 RF can “bounce” off objects like

Unwiring the Network

 Signals arrive 180° out of phase ( 1/2 l) from reflective surface

Unwiring the Network

 Reflections can come from ANYWHERE - behind, under, in-front

Unwiring the Network

 No obstructions between each end

Unwiring the Network

• The Fresnel zone is additional path clearance that is required to optimize

Unwiring the Network

 Non-free space (Line of Sight)

 Free Space (Radio Line of Sight)

Unwiring the Network

 A structure can be erected to establish line-of-sight over obstacles

Unwiring the Network

 Two structures can be erected to establish line-of-sight over obstacles

Unwiring the Network