MaE 303 FLUID MECHANICS

Pressure and Fluid Statics

FLUID STATICS

• Hydrostatics is the study of pressures throughout a

fluid at rest and the pressure forces on finite surfaces.
As the fluid is at rest, there are no shear stresses in it. Hence the
pressure at a point on a plane surface always acts normal to the
surface, and all forces are independent of viscosity.

• The pressure variation is due only to the weight of the

fluid. As a result, the controlling laws are relatively simple, and
analysis is based on a straightforward application of the
mechanical principles of force and moment. Solutions are exact
and there is no need to have recourse to experiment.
 Pressure
• Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per
unit area(even imaginary surfaces as in a control volume).
• Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a pascal (Pa).
• Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures encountered in
practice, kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa
= 106 Pa) are commonly used. [ML-1T-2]
• Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.
Pressure
• 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa

• 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars

• 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 9.807  104 N/m2 = 9.807  104

• Pa = 0.9807 bar = 0.9679 atm

• 1 atm = 14.696 psi.

• 1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi.

 Pressure at a Point

By considering the equilibrium of a small triangular wedge of fluid

extracted from a static fluid body, one can show that for any wedge
angle θ, the pressures on the three faces of the wedge are equal in
magnitude:
 Pressure at a Point

• Pressure at any point in a fluid

is the same in all directions.
• Pressure has a magnitude, but
not a specific direction, and
thus it is a scalar quantity.
• Proof on the Blackboard
Pressure at a Point
 Pressure at a Point

• This result is known as Pascal's law, which states that the pressure at a point
in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent of direction as long as there are
no shear stresses present.

• Pressure at a point has the same magnitude in all directions, and is called
isotropic .
 Variation of Pressure with Depth

Therefore, the hydrostatic

pressure increases linearly
with depth at the rate of the
specific weight of the fluid.
Variation of Pressure with Depth
• In the presence of a gravitational field,
pressure increases with depth because more
fluid rests on deeper layers.
• To obtain a relation for the variation of
pressure with depth, consider rectangular
element
• Force balance in z-direction gives
F z  maz  0
P2 Dx  P1Dx   g DxDz  0

• Dividing by Dx and rearranging gives

DP  P2  P1   gDz   s Dz
• ∆z is called the pressure head
Variation of Pressure with Depth
Variation of Pressure with Depth
• Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the
shape of the container.
• Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal
plane in a given fluid.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures

• Actual pressure at a given point is called the

absolute pressure.

• Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to

read zero in the atmosphere, and therefore indicate
gage pressure, Pgage = Pabs - Patm.

• Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called

vacuum pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
Hydrostatic Pressure Difference Between Two
Points
For a fluid with constant density,
If you can draw a continuous line through the same fluid from
point 1 to point 2, then p1 = p2 if z1 = z2.

•By this rule p1 = p2 and p4 = p5

•p2 does not equal p3 even though

they are at the same elevation,
because one cannot draw a line
connecting these points through
the same fluid. In fact, p2 is less
than p3 since mercury is denser
than water.
Hydrostatic Pressure Difference Between Two
Points
Any free surface open to the The shape of a container does
atmosphere has atmospheric not matter in hydrostatics
pressure, p0.
Hydrostatic Pressure Difference Between Two
Point
Pressure in layered fluid.
Pascal’s Law
• Two points at the same elevation
in a continuous fluid at rest are at
the same pressure, called Pascal’s
law,

• Pressure applied to a confined

fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.
• In picture, pistons are at same
height:
F1 F2 F2 A2
P1  P2    
A1 A2 F1 A1

• Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal

mechanical advantage
Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s Law
 Pressure Measurement and Manometers

Piezometer tube
The simplest manometer is a tube, open
at the top, which is attached to a vessel
or a pipe containing liquid at a pressure
(higher than atmospheric) to be
measured. This simple device is known
as a piezometer tube.

This method can only be used for liquids (i.e.

not for gases) and only when the liquid
height is convenient to measure. It must not
be too small or too large and pressure
changes must be detectable.
Pressure Measurement and Manometers
U-tube manometer
This device consists of a glass tube bent into
the shape of a "U", and is used to measure
some unknown pressure. For example,
consider a U-tube manometer that is used to
measure pressure pA in some kind of tank or
machine.

Finally, note that in many cases (such as

with air pressure being measured by a
mercury manometer), the density of
manometer fluid 2 is much greater than that
of fluid 1. In such cases, the last term on the
right is sometimes neglected.
Pressure Measurement and Manometers

Differential manometer

A differential manometer can be

used to measure the difference in
pressure between two containers
or two points in the same system.
Again, on equating the pressures
at points labeled (2) and (3), we
may get an expression for the
pressure difference between A
and B:
Pressure Measurement and Manometers
Inverted U-tube Differential manometers

At datum x - x
P1  P 2
PA   A g (h1 )  PB   B g (h2 )  liquid gh
 Pressure Measurement and Manometers

Inverted U-tube Differential manometers-Example

x-x
P1  P 2
PA  2 1000  9.81  19620 N/m 2

PA   A g (h1 )  PB   B g (h2 )   liquid gh

19620  1000  9.81 0.3  PB  1000  9.81 0.1  800  9.81 0.15
PB  18835 N/m 2  18.8 kN/m 2
 Pressure Measurement and Manometers

Inclined-tube manometer
As shown above, the differential reading is proportional to the pressure
difference. If the pressure difference is very small, the reading may be too
small to be measured with good accuracy. To increase the sensitivity of the
differential reading, one leg of the manometer can be inclined at an angle θ,
and the differential reading is measured along the inclined tube.
 Pressure Measurement and Manometers

The Manometer • An elevation change of Dz in

a fluid at rest corresponds to
DP/g.
• A device based on this is
called a manometer.
• A manometer consists of a
U-tube containing one or
more fluids such as mercury,
water, alcohol, or oil.
• Heavy fluids such as mercury
are used if large pressure
differences are anticipated.
P1  P2
P2  Patm   gh
Pressure Measurement and Manometers

Multi-Fluid Manometer
• For multi-fluid systems
• Pressure change across a fluid column
of height h is DP = gh.
• Pressure increases downward, and
decreases upward.
• Two points at the same elevation in a
continuous fluid are at the same
pressure.
• Pressure can be determined by adding
and subtracting gh terms.
Pressure Measurement and Manometers
Example:
U-tube manometer containing mercury was used to find the negative pressure in the
pipe, containing water. The right limb was open to the atmosphere. Find the vacuum
pressure in the pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs was 100 mm and
height of water in the left limb from the centre of the pipe was found to be 40 mm
below.
Pressure Measurement and Manometers

P1  P 2
Ppipe  1 gh1   2 gh2  0

Ppipe  1103 * 9.81* 0.04  13.6 103 * 9.81* 0.1  0

Ppipe  13734 N / m 2  13.73 KN / m 2
Ppipe abs.  Ppipe  gauge   Ppipe atm.
Ppipe abs.  13.73  100  86.27 KN / m 2
 Pressure Measurement and Manometers

General Example
The atmospheric pressure is 755 mm of mercury
(sp. Gravity = 13.6),
calculate
i) Absolute pressure of air in the tank,
ii) Pressure gauge reading at L.

P1  P 2
0  Pair   mercury g (hmercury )
Pair  13.6 103 * 9.81* 0.6  80kN / m 2
Pabs  Pair  Patm. 
Patm.  0.755 *13600 * 9.81  100.73kN / m 2
Pabs  80 103  100.73  20.73kN / m 2
PL  Pair   water gh  80  103  1000 * 9.81* 2  60.38kN / m 2
Measuring Pressure Drops

• Manometers are well--suited to

measure pressure drops across
valves, pipes, heat exchangers, etc.
•
• Relation for pressure drop P1-P2 is
obtained by starting at point 1
and adding or subtracting gh
terms until we reach point 2.

• If fluid in pipe is a gas, 2>>1 and

P1-P2 2gh
The Barometer

• Atmospheric pressure is measured by

a device called a barometer; thus,
atmospheric pressure is often referred
to as the barometric pressure.

• PC can be taken to be zero since there

is only Hg vapor above point C, and it
is very low relative to Patm.

• Change in atmospheric pressure due

to elevation has many effects:
Cooking, nose bleeds, engine
performance, aircraft performance.

PC   gh  Patm
Patm   gh
The Barometer
• Standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure produced
by a column of mercury 760 mm (29.92 in Hg or of water
about 10.3 m ) in height at 0°C
(Hg = 13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational
acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).
Fluid Statics
• Fluid Statics deals with problems associated with
fluids at rest.
• In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between
adjacent fluid layers.
• Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid trying to
deform it.
• The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress
• Normal stress is due to pressure
• Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the fluid →
fluid statics is only relevant in presence of gravity fields.
• Applications: Floating or submerged bodies, water
dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Pressure Distributions-Curved Surfaces
Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

• On a plane surface, the

hydrostatic forces form a system
of parallel forces
• For many applications, magnitude
and location of application, which
is called center of pressure, must
be determined.
• Atmospheric pressure Patm can be
neglected when it acts on both
sides of the surface.
Resultant Force FR

The magnitude of FR acting on a plane surface of a completely submerged

plate in a homogenous fluid is equal to the product of the pressure PC at the
centroid of the surface and the area A of the surface
Resultant Force FR
Center of Pressure
• Line of action of
resultant force FR=PCA
does not pass through
the centroid of the
surface. In general, it lies
underneath where the
pressure is higher.
• Vertical location of
Center of Pressure is
determined by equation
the moment of the
resultant force to the
moment of the
distributed pressure
force.

I xx ,C
y p  yC 
yc A
The centroidal moments of inertia for some common
geometries
Submerged Rectangular Plate

EX: What is the yp for case (a)?

Submerged Rectangular Plate

EX: What is the yp for case (a)?

Example:
Hydrostatic Force Acting on the Door of a Submerged Car

A heavy car plunges into a lake during an

accident and lands at the bottom of the lake
on its wheels. The door is 1.2 m high and 1 m
wide, and the top edge of the door is 8 m
below the free surface of the water.

Determine the hydrostatic force on the door

and the location of the pressure center, and
discuss if the driver can open the door.

Pave = PC = ghC = g(s + b/2)= 84.4 kN/m2

FR = PaveA = (84.4 kNm2) (1 m  1.2 m) = 101.3 kN

yP = 8.61 m
Example:
Hydrostatic Force Acting on the Door of a Submerged Car
Discussion A strong person can lift 100 kg, whose weight is 981 N or about 1 kN.
Also, the person can apply the force at a point farthest from the hinges (1 m farther)
for maximum effect and generate a moment of 1 kN · m.
The resultant hydrostatic force acts under the midpoint of the door, and thus a
distance of 0.5 m from the hinges. This generates a moment of 50.6 kN · m, which is
about 50 times the moment the driver can possibly generate.
Therefore, it is impossible for the driver to open the door of the car.

The driver’s best bet is to let some water in (by rolling the window down a little, for
example) and to keep his or her head close to the ceiling.

The driver should be able to open the door shortly before the car is filled with water
since at that point the pressures on both sides of the door are nearly the same and
opening the door in water is almost as easy as opening it in air.

Pave = PC = ghC = g(s + b/2)= 84.4 kN/m2

FR = PaveA = (84.4 kNm2) (1 m  1.2 m) = 101.3 kN

yP = 8.61 m
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces

Horizontally immersed surface

gh *A
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Vertically immersed surface

Pressure at any point along the strip p  ρgx

Total pressure on the strip  p  dA  p.b.dx
The Total pressure on the body R   p.b.dx   gx.b.dx
R  g  bx.dx  g ( Ax )  gx A
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Center of Pressure

Pressure at any point along the strip p  ρgx

Total pressure on the strip  p.b.dx
The moment of the pressure about free surface o - o,
M  p.b.dx.(x)
M for all body   p.b.dx.(x)
   b dx  g  x b.dx  gI
2 2
gx o
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Center of Pressure

P  h  gI o
gI o gI o Io IG
h    x
P gx A x A x A
P  gx A
IG
h x
xA
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Example 1
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Example 2
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Example 3
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Inclined Immersed Surface

l sin 

P  gx A

Using the same procedures as in Vertical surface

Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces

P  gx A
I G sin 2 
h x
xA
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Pressure Distributions-Flat Surfaces
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

• FR on a curved surface is more involved since it requires integration of the

pressure forces that change direction along the surface.
• Easiest approach: determine horizontal and vertical components FH and
FV separately.
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
• Horizontal force component on curved surface: FH=Fx. Line
of action on vertical plane gives y coordinate of center of
pressure on curved surface.
• Vertical force component on curved surface:
• FV=Fy+W, where W is the weight of the liquid in the
enclosed block W=rgV. x coordinate of the center of
pressure is a combination of line of action on horizontal
plane (centroid of area) and line of action through volume
(centroid of volume).
• Magnitude of force FR=(FH2+FV2)1/2
• Angle of force is a = tan-1(FV/FH)
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
1) Liquid above surface
 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
Liquid above surface
Horizontal component of force on surface:
By considering the equilibrium of the liquid mass contained in ABC,
we get
FH = F = resultant force of liquid acting on vertically projected area
(BC) and acting through the centre of pressure of F.
Vertical component of force on surface
By considering the equilibrium of the liquid mass contained in ADEC,
we get
FV = W = weight of liquid vertically above the surface (ADEC) and
through the centre of gravity of the liquid mass.
Resultant force FR pointing downward, and making an angle α with
horizontal
 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
Liquid below surface

Imagine that the space (ADCB)

vertically above the curved surface is
occupied with the same fluid as that
below it (disregard what actually is
filling that space). Then the surface
AB could be removed without
disrupting the equilibrium of the fluid.
That means, the force acting on the
underside of the surface would be
balanced by that acting on the upper
side under this imaginary condition.
Therefore we may use the same The space above the surface ADCB
arguments as in the preceding case: may be empty or contain other fluid.
 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
Liquid below surface
Horizontal component of force on surface:
FH = F = resultant force of liquid acting on vertically projected area (AB) and
acting through the centre of pressure of F.

Vertical component of force on surface

FV = W = weight of imaginary liquid (i.e., same liquid as on the other side of
the surface) vertically above the surface (ADCB) and through the centre of
gravity of the liquid mass.
Resultant force FR pointing upward, and making an angle α with horizontal
Example: A Gravity-Controlled Cylindrical Gate
A long solid cylinder of radius 0.8 m
hinged at point A is used as an
automatic gate. When the water level
reaches 5 m, the gate opens by
turning about the hinge at point A.
Determine (a) the hydrostatic force
acting on the cylinder and its line of
action when the gate opens and (b)
the weight of the cylinder per m
length of the cylinder.

= 36.1 kN

= 39.2 kN
Example: A Gravity-Controlled Cylindrical Gate

= 1.3 kN

The weight of the cylinder is

Example: Curved Surfaces

PV

P1
PH

P2
Example: Curved Surfaces

pressure at L  103  9.811  9.81 kN

pressure at M  103  9.81 4  39.2 kN

For unit width

P1  pL  ( Area)  9.81 3 *1  29.4 kN

  pM  pL  ( Area)   39.2  9.81 3 *1  44.09 kN

1 1
P2 
2 2

PH  P1  P2  29.4  44.09  73.5 kN

Example: Curved Surfaces
Example: Curved Surfaces
Example: Curved Surfaces

1
2
1
2
 
PH 1   gh1  ( Area )   103  9.81 3  3 *1.5  52.98 kN

1
2
1
2
 
PH 2   gh2  ( Area )   103  9.811.5  1.5 *1.5  16.55 kN

PH  PH 1  PH 2  52.98  16.55  36.43 kN

 1.52
PV 1  850  9.81 1.5  41610 N  41.61 kN
2
  1. 5 2
PV 2  10  9.81
3
1.5  26000 N  26 kN
4
PV  PV 1  PV 2  41.61  26  67.61 kN

P  PH  PV  76.8 kN
2 2

76.8
  tan -1  64.6o
36.43
 Buoyancy and Stability

• Buoyancy is due to the fluid

displaced by a body.
Buoyant force FB=f gV.

• Archimedes principal
The buoyant force acting on
a body immersed in a fluid
is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the
body, and it acts upward
through the centroid of the
displaced volume.
Buoyancy and Stability
Archimedes’ Principle states that the buoyant force has a
magnitude equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and
is directed vertically upward.

•Buoyant force is a force that results from a floating or submerged body in a fluid.
•The force results from different pressures on the top and bottom of the object
•The pressure forces acting from below are greater than those on top

Treating an arbitrary submerged object as a planar surface

Arbitrary Shape

Forces on the Fluid

 Buoyancy and Stability
Balancing the Forces of the F.B.D. in the vertical Direction:

  g

W   h2  h1 A  V 
Then, substituting:

W is the weight of the shaded area

F1 and F2 are the forces on the plane surfaces
Simplifying,
FB is the buoyant force the body exerts on the fluid

The force of the fluid on the body is opposite, or vertically upward and is
known as the Buoyant Force.
The force is equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
Buoyancy and Stability
The buoyant force acts through the centroid of the
displaced volume.

The location is known as the center of buoyancy B.

Buoyancy and Stability
We can apply the same principles to floating objects:

If the fluid acting on the upper surfaces has very small specific weight (air),
the centroid is simply that of the displaced volume, and the buoyant force is
as before.
Buoyancy and Stability

• Buoyancy force FB is equal only to

the displaced volume fgVdisplaced.
• Three scenarios possible
1. body<fluid: Floating body
2. body=fluid: Neutrally buoyant
3. body>fluid: Sinking body
Example 1:
A wooden block of width 1.25 m, depth 0.75
And length 3.0 m is floating in water. Specific weight
of wood is 6.4kN/m3 find the position of center of buoyancy

W  FB
W  gVdis.
W  0.75 *1.25 * 3.0 * 6.4  18KN 0.75 G
h
B

18  103  1000 * 9.81* (h *1.25 * 3) 1.25

h  0.489
0.489
Center of buoyancy   0.244m
2
Example 2
Stability
 Stability of Immersed Bodies

Stable Equilibrium when displaced, returns to equilibrium position.

Unstable Equilibrium when displaced, it returns to a new equilibrium position.

Stable Equilibrium Unstable Equilibrium

C > CG, “Higher” C < CG, “Lower”

Stability of Immersed Bodies

• Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon relative location of

center of gravity G and center of buoyancy B.

• G below B stable

• G above B unstable

• G coincides with B neutrally stable.

Stability of Immersed Bodies
• If body is bottom
heavy (G lower
than B), it is always
stable.
• Floating bodies can
be stable when G is
higher than B due
to shift in location
of center buoyancy
and creation of
restoring moment.
• Measure of
stability is the
metacentric height
GM. If GM>1, ship
is stable.

The metacenter may be considered to be a fixed point for most hull

shapes for small rolling angles up to about 20°.
Stability of Floating Bodies
Metacentre and Metacentric Height
Metacentre and Metacentric Height

In Water
 Example

W  FB
W  gVdis.
1.472  103  1000 * 9.81* (h * 0.50 *1)
h  0. 3
0.3
OB   0.15m
2
OG  0.2
BG  OG  OB  0.2  0.15  0.05m
I 0.53  1 / 12
BM    0.069m
V 0.3  0.5  1
GM  BM  BG  0.069  0.05  0.019m