You are on page 1of 167

Founded on the concept of allowing moving water to turn a

turbine runner and transfer energy to a coupled generator


that rotates to produce electricity
Electrical
Potential Energy
Energy
Electricity

Kinetic
Energy

Mechanical
Energy
Observed Discharge in river
1200

1000
Discharge in Cumecs

800

600

400

200

Time

Variability depends on rainfall pattern and/or


snowmelt dynamics (affected also by meteorological
factors); and upstream interventions
CONVENIENTLY
DONE IN TERMS

Streamflow or load
OF A

(m3/s or KW)

0% % of time equaled 100%


or exceeded
Streamflow (m3/s)

100%
% of time equaled
or exceeded
Streamflow (m3/s or ft3/s)

100%
% of time equaled or
No flow
exceeded
PERENNIAL STREAM EPHEMERAL STREAM
Generally there is incompatibility between the Load Duration Curve and the Flow
Duration Curve

% of time exceeded
Load Duration Curve
Flow Duration Curve
Regulation or control is needed to make supply pattern compatible with the
demand pattern

% of time equaled or exceeded


Load Duration Curve Regulated Flow
Flow Duration Curve
Regulated Flow

CORRESPONDING POWER IN
100%
% of time equaled or STREAM CURVE
exceeded

Secondary power or Dump power


Power Generation

(Low Premium)

% of time equaled or 100%


exceeded

FIRM POWER (High Premium)


OR
DEPENDABALE POWER
P  g   Q  H
P  10   Q  H
 P = power in kilowatts (kW)
 g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
  = turbo-generator efficiency (0<n<1)
 Q = quantity of water flowing (m3/sec)
 H = effective head (m)

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003


 Demand (Power) (kW) or (MW)
 Or,
 Demand (Energy) = Power x Time
KWh (kilo-watt hours)
Or, MWh (mega watt hours)
Or, MW (continuous)
If Q is in m3/s (turbine discharge)
and, H: Head in m
Power, P(kW) = 9.8 η Q H;
efficiency, η < 1
Consider a mountain stream with an effective head of 25 meters
(m) and a flow rate of 600 liters (ℓ) per minute. How much
power could a hydro plant generate? Assume plant efficiency
() of 83%.

 H = 25 m
 Q = 600 ℓ/min × 1 m3/1000 ℓ × 1 min/60sec
Q = 0.01 m3/sec
  = 0.83

 P  10QH = 10(0.83)(0.01)(25) = 2.075


P  2.1 kW

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003


How much energy (E) will the hydro plant generate each year?

 E = P×t
E = 2.1 kW × 24 hrs/day × 365 days/yr
E = 18,396 kWh annually

About how many people will this energy support (assume


approximately 3,000 kWh / person)?

 People = E÷3000 = 18396/3000 = 6.13


 About 6 people

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003


Consider a second site with an effective head of 100 m and a
flow rate of 6,000 cubic meters per second (about that of
Niagara Falls). Answer the same questions.

 P  10QH = 10(0.83)(6000)(100)
P  4.98 million kW = 4.98 GW (gigawatts)
 E = P×t = 4.98GW × 24 hrs/day × 365 days/yr
E = 43,625 GWh = 43.6 TWh (terrawatt hours)
 People = E÷3000 = 43.6 TWh / 3,000 kWh
People = 1.45 million people
 (This assumes maximum power production 24x7)

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003


ASPIRES FOR:
ACCORD BETWEEN SUPPLY VARIABILITY (WATER AVAILABILITY) &
DEMAND VARIABILITY
WHILE AT THE SAME TIME MAINTAIN A VERIFIABLE
HARMONY BETWEEN THE PLANNED DEVELOPMENT AND ITS
ENVIRONMENTAL CRUCIBLE
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
The World's First Hydroelectric Power Plant
Began Operation (September 30, 1882)

On September 30, 1882,


the world's first
hydroelectric
power plant began
Operation on the Fox
River in Appleton,
Wisconsin

25
India's first hydroelectric station (1897)
Shidrapong in Darjeeling (0.13 MW)
Power in the stream

Average power available


Average
L3
Power
L2
Demand
L1

t1 t2
Flow regulation is possible to the extent permissible by
availability of water, public policy and, of course, the load
requirement

Original Flow Duration Curve

Regulated Flow

% of time equaled of exceeded


 

 



LOAD DURATION CURVE
Load
exceeded Area under Load
at no time
Duration Curve is the
energy required over that
time period
Load (MW)

Peak Load

Load
Load required at 100% of time
exceeded
at all time
0% 100%
% of time exceeded
 Load Curve - The
Maximum instantaneous power distribution of power
requirement or Peak load requirements over
time. When plotted on
a graph, time usually
depicted as the
horizontal axis and
load as the vertical
Load(MW)

axis.

time

LOAD CURVE
 Area under Load curve is
Energy (MWh) and may
Maximum instantaneous power also be written as
requirement or Peak load MW(cont).
 Integration is over the
same time period
 MW(cont) is the total
energy supplied over a
given time period and is
expressed in terms of an
equivalent average
Load(MW)

(constant) load in MW
which results in the same
energy supply (MWh) as
actually realized over the
time same time duration

LOAD CURVE
PEAK LOADS ON ACCOUNT OF SHARP AND SUDDEN LOADS

Load (MW)
Load (MW)

% of time exceeded

PEAK LOAD

PEAK LOAD POSITION


Load (MW)
INTERMEDIATE LOAD POSITION
BASE LOAD POSITION
% of time exceeded
1. Installed capacity of the hydrostation (turbine
& generator ) = 500/η
2. Continuous supply of ‘water power’ (power in
stream)
3. Less amount of water to be fully functional in
this range
1. 500 MW
Peak Load
Load (MW)

Average Load
Peak
Load
Load Curve Energy = 500 MWh

Load for critical week


(maximum demand and often minimum stream flow)
Micro: 0.3 – 0.5 MW
Mini: 0.5 MW to 5 MW
Small: 5 MW to 25 MW
Medium: 25 MW to 100 MW
Large: 101 MW – 1000 MW
Mega (Super): > 1000 MW

(Not to be considered sacrosanct. You may adopt a


different measure so long as your partners and/or
collaborators understand what you are talking
about)
Low: < 15 m
Medium : 15 m to 70 m
High: 70 m to 250 m
Very High: > 250 m

(Not to be considered sacrosanct. You may adopt a


different measure so long as your partners and/or
collaborators understand what you are talking
about)
44
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
Hydropower
Technology

Pumped
Impoundment Diversion
Storage

45
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html
 It uses water as and when it comes without
attempting to pond or store it.

 Power generation may not be its primary


function.

 Often these plant are low head plants and


during flood when the tail water level rises, the
plants are rendered inoperational.
 Run of the river plants without pondage

 Capable of substantially continuous operation


throughout the year

 Installation or full plant discharge is scarcely


higher than minimum stream flow
 Pondage enables regulation of
flow to take care of hour to hour
fluctuations for a period upto a
week
 Pondage firms up dependable
power in stream
 Installation is therefore high as
compared to minimum stream
flow
 Low flows: Pondage takes care
of intermittent spikes in
demand at the peak position
 Ample flows: Continuous
operation is possible at the base
position
 Hence it is more flexible
 SHARP AND SUDDEN
SPIKES IN DEMAND
 MAXIMUM VALUE
ADDITION TO ECONOMY
 IN THE EVENT OF A
FAILURE, POTENTIAL TO
CAUSE MAX. LOSS IN
PRODUCTIVITY.
THEREFORE ZERO
TOLERANCE
 DEMANDS HIGH
RELIABILITY AND POWER
COMMANDS MAXIMUM
PREMIUM
 TURBINE NEEDS TO BE READY
TO PICK UP ANY SUDDEN
INCREASE IN DEMAND

 READILY AVAILABLE SUPPLY OF


STEAM AT ALL TIMES

 BOILER HAS TO BE ‘ALIVE’ AND


COSTLY COAL MUST BE
BURNED CONTINUOUSLY

 THEREFORE, ON THE WHOLE,


WASTEFUL OF ENERGY
 Large storage (often  Required for high
seasonal or even over reliability
year)
 Minimal energy loss
 Generally high head on account of water
level fluctuations
 Large forebay areas (i.e. ΔH << H)
 Economic in
the long run
 High
expenditure
 Water
conservation
 Only
evaporation
losses
61
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
 Completed 1967
 Capacity – 324 MW
 Two 162 MW units
 Purpose – energy storage
 Water pumped uphill at night
 Low usage – excess base load capacity
 Water flows downhill during day/peak periods
 Typical efficiency of 70 – 85%

62
 Utilize rise in sea water level due to a tide.
 During high tide, turbines generate power as
water flows from sea-side into the bay.
 Water flows back to the sea during recession in
sea water levels (low tide) and generates power
provided another set of turbines in the opposite
direction are installed.
 Turbines that generate electricity in either
direction are also possible.
500MW
Load(MW)

Load(MW)
Time (e.g. daily for a week) % equaled or exceeded
100%

100%
Plot between
% of Total Peak

% of Total Peak
v/s
% of Total
Energy under
% of Total Energy under Peak Peak
100%
Consider a hydro-plant with 100 MW installation
At peak it will serve 20% of the peak
12% of total energy will make the capacity fully
effective

Sum up to 12% of
total energy
Peak demand equal to 500 MW
100%
100MW
% of Total Peak

Which means

20%

12% 100%

% of Total Energy under Peak


Designing for Firm Capacity
Prime power available in stream during critical
period (week) = 1000 MW (cont) = 168000 MWh
Existing power supply and demand:

 Hydro system capacity installed = 50 MW


 Steam system capacity installed = 50 MW
 Peak load = 130 MW
Energy reqd. = 75000 MWh HP
(Wasteful of available stream power)

Load (MW)
Energy wasted = 168000 – 75000 = 93000 MWh 50 MW
168000MWh

Critical Period (week) SP


(Gap between demand and
supply is maximum) HP
168000MWh

Load (MW)
50 MW
Energy reqd. = 168000 MWh
The same plant at a lower position
is able to use all the prime power
that is available in the stream
Required additional capacity and
another source
10 MW

50 MW
168000MWh

40 MW
FOR A GIVEN CRITICAL PERIOD:
A. On the Demand side:
1. Peak load
2. Energy under the peak (Area under the peak)

B. Supply side:
1. Dependable flow (prime stream power/energy
available)

AN THE TWO ARE BRIDGED TOGETHER BY


THE INSTALLATION PROVIDED
1. Existing loads and corresponding Load Curve
2. Shape, size and other characteristics for past
several years
3. Probable growth in load over the planning
horizon
4. Nature of existing system (size, location & its
interconnectedness)
5. Existence of any unconnected system/ Load


 That portion of the total installed capacity which is fully
effective or fully dependable

Or alternatively

 That portion of the total installed capacity that performs the


same function on that portion of the load curve assigned to
it as an alternative Thermal/Steam Capacity

NOTE:
 Minimum stream flow at the time of peak load
 Installation period
 Pondage provided
 Size and characteristics of the connected load
curve
 Inter-relationships between existing plants
 Load condition
 Position on the Load curve

 Dependable flow
In the critical week, let prime power
(energy) available in stream
= 100 MW (cont)
System demand (from Load studies)
Prime Power or Energy= 330 MW (cont)
System Peak Load = 500 MW
% of total energy demanded that is available
in stream

% of Total Peak
100%

= 100/330 = 30 % 50%
From the PP curve given, % of total peak that
encloses 100 MW(cont) of energy
30%
=50% 100%
% of Total Energy under Peak
Therefore, installation to be provided
= 0.5 x 500 =250MW and all it will be Firm
Capacity
 System energy demand doubles to 660
MW(cont)
 Assume peak load also doubles to 1000 MW
 Prime power available in stream does not
change (obviously).
 Also no change in
 Dependable flow
 Position on the load curve
 For the scenario of doubled demand:

Percentage of total demand available at site is now


=100/660=15%
From the reconstructed P.P.Curve, 15 % of total energy
demand is required in top 35% of peak load = 35% of
1000MW
Firm Capacity also increases to 350 MW
 100 MW (cont) –
Same Area Identical prime power
100 MW(Cont.)
1000 MW
availability.
 Vertical scale of range
doubles in the load
duration curve.
500 MW  Peak portion of load
curve becomes narrower
 Same area enclosed by a
larger intercept
 Hence the increase in
capacity that can be
FIRM
Let plant A be assigned to Peak Energy at A takes care of 30% of
Total energy demand =330 requirements. From P.P.C. this amount of
MW(cont); Peak load = 500MW energy requirement is contained in top
Prime power (energy) available at 50% of the total Peak Load of 500 MW
site A = 100 MW(cont) = 30% of (250 MW).
total demand.
500MW 100%

100 MW(cont)
70%
250MW

% of Total Peak
A 100 MW(cont)
50%

250MW
B

30% 60% 100%


% of Total Energy under Peak

Therefore develop site A with a capacity of 250 MW and all of it will be


firm at its assigned (PEAK) position.
Plant B be assigned to the next Energy at B also takes care of 30% of requirements
and supply increases incrementally from 30% to 60%
lower position. As before, total of requirements. From P.P.C. this amount of energy
energy demand =330 MW(cont); requirement is contained in next lower 20% of the
Peak load = 500MW; Prime power total Peak Load of 500 MW (or 100 MW).
(energy) available at site B = 100
MW(cont) = 30% of total demand.
500MW 100%

100 MW(cont)
70%
250MW

% of Total Peak
A 100 MW(cont)
50%

250MW
B

30% 60% 100%


% of Total Energy under Peak

Therefore develop site B with a capacity of 100 MW and all of it will be


firm at its assigned (below the PEAK) position.
Example illustrates the dependence of Firm Capacity on the position assigned
on the Load Curve. Higher capacity will be Firm at higher position on the
load curve and a relatively smaller part will be Firm if the plant is assigned a
lower position on the load curve if prime power (energy) available in stream
at that site remains the same.

500MW 100%

100 MW(cont)
70%
250MW
B
% of Total Peak
A 100 MW(cont)
50%

250MW
B A

30% 60% 100%

% of Total Energy under Peak


 Incremental Cost
 Develop site having smaller incremental cost to 250MW
capacity and the other site to 100MW capacity.

 Available Head
Site 1 Site 2
Low Head & High High Head & Low Discharge
Discharge
100MW 250MW

 Size of Forebay
Large forebay  less losses due to fluctuation 250MW
Small forebay  more losses  100MW
 In general dependable
energy (prime power)
increases with dependable
flow.
 Therefore, higher capacity
becomes firm.
 Note: Dependable flow
increases with pondage but
only upto a limit as
illustrated.
 Increase in Firm Capacity is
not proportional to increase
in prime power as illustrated
by the PPC
 Head = 127.55 m
 Efficiency, η = 0.8

 Lf = 0.667

 Average demand to be met = 300 MW or Prime


Power requirement = 300 MW (cont)
 Peak load = 300/0.667 = 450 MW

QDEP: Dependable flow required from stream is given


by:
QDEP = 300,000/(9.81*127.55*0.8) = 300 m3/s

Flow/Power available in stream is shown in the


following figure:
Let a capacity of S1 be required to ensure a dependable supply of 300 m3/s
Peak Load =450 MW

500 500MW
Q DEP (reqd.) (m3/s)

S1
400
400MW
W S W
300
R 300MW
R Streamflow/
200
200MW
Stream power
100
100MW

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T1
0 0 FULL

S1
EMPTY
State of
Reservoir
T1: End of dry season
T4-T5: Reservoir begins filling up
T2: Reservoir becomes full
T5: Reservoir is full again
‘W’ is waste/spill
T2 – T3 : Reservoir remains full
T3 : Reservoir release begins T5-T6: Full ‘R’ is reservoir release
T6 –T7 :Empties till T7 or T1
T3 –T4: Supply supplemented by
(Supply is dominated by release )
R =S
releases from reservoir
 Average demand = 300 MW
 => QDEPENDABLE = 300 m3/s

 If QDEP < QMIN, no regulation is required

because Q DEP is available at all times


And, conversely,
 When QDEP > QMIN, regulation by means of
storage/ pondage is required and capacity may
be estimated using Sequent Peak Algorithm
(SPA) or Graphical methods such as Ripples
Diagram method.
i) Storage capacity to firm up flow to 300 m3/s
during lean seasons was estimated to be equal
to S1
ii) Regulation was only for dependable flow (300
m3/s)
iii) Some wastage (spill)of water during surplus
flow was unavoidable
iv) Reservoir releases are used ONLY when flow <
300 m3/s
 Head = 127.55 m
 Efficiency, η = 0.8
 Lf = 0.667
 Average demand to be met = 300 MW or Prime
Power requirement = 300 MW (cont)
 Peak load = 300/0.667 = 450 MW
QDEP: Dependable flow required from stream is given
by:

Flow/Power in available in stream is shown in the


following figure:
Let a capacity of S1 be required to ensure a dependable supply of 300 m3/s
Peak Load =450 MW

500 500MW
Q DEP (reqd.) (m3/s)

S1
400
400MW
W S W
300
R 300MW
R Streamflow/
200
200MW
Stream power
100
100MW

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T1
0 0 FULL

S1
EMPTY
State of
Reservoir
T1: End of dry season
T4-T5: Reservoir begins filling up
T2: Reservoir becomes full
T5: Reservoir is full again
‘W’ is waste/spill
T2 – T3 : Reservoir remains full
T3 : Reservoir release begins T5-T6: Full ‘R’ is reservoir release
T6 –T7 :Empties till T7 or T1
T3 –T4: Supply supplemented by
(Supply is dominated by release )
R =S
releases from reservoir
i) Average demand = 600 MW
ii) Lf = 0.66
iii) Peak Demand = 900 MW
iv) System configuration: Equal Hydro and Steam
based mixed system
v) Installed Hydro capacity = 450 MW
vi) Installed Steam capacity = 450 MW
vii) For Hydro system:
Head = 127.55 m
η = 0.8

Dependable flow in order to firm up the entire 450 MW


hydro capacity at Peak Load Position?
During lean season, Hydro is assigned the peak
Load position

Hydro capacity = 450MW


100% or 50% of the total peak load
of 900 MW
In order to firm up the hydro capacity,
% Peak Prime power in stream required =?
50% From PPC: 50% of peak load requires
25% of total energy demand
= 25% x 600MW (cont)
= 150 MW(cont)
25% 100%
=> Q DEP = 150 m3/s
% Energy under peak
 Even though demand for power and energy have
doubled, QDEP = 150 m3/s (< QDEP = 300 m3/s as
obtained for the previous case of Stage I)
 Storage requirements, S2, for purposes of
regulation of flow to ensure availability of
dependable flow will, therefore, also reduce
 Accordingly, duration of regulation is also
expected to reduce (i.e. S2 < S1)
 Need to select ‘best’ current place for Hydro
system since Steam capacity of 450 MW is also
available
 CASE I: HYDRO AT PEAK

QDEP = 150 m3/s


 CASE II: HYDRO AT
CONSTANTLY CHANGING
INTERMEDIATE POSITION

For 150 m3/s < Q < 405 m3/s

 CASE III: HYDRO AT BASE


POSITION (Lf = 0.9)

Flow needed: 450*0.9 = 405 m3/s


500 500MW
W W
Q DEP (reqd.) (m3/s)

400
400MW

300
300MW

S2
200
200MW
QDEP=150m3/s
100
100MW

T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T1
0
T1 0 FULL

S2
EMPTY
State of
Reservoir
 CASE I: HYDRO AT PEAK

QDEP = 150 m3/s


 CASE II: HYDRO AT
CONSTANTLY CHANGING
INTERMEDIATE POSITION

For 150 m3/s < Q < 405 m3/s

 CASE III: HYDRO AT BASE


POSITION (Lf = 0.9)

Flow needed: 450*0.9 = 405 m3/s


 Hydro at Peak:
Lean flow (T6 –T7)
Priority to filling of reservoir
(T1- T2)
 Hydro at inter. position

(T3 -T4) and (T5 – T6)


[150 m3/s < Q < 405 m3/s]

 Hydro at Base:
[Q > 405 m3/s]
(T2-T3) and (T4 – T5)

Not much more water is wasted


even with reduced storage. Why?
 From last figure, Q min <Q dep
 Need for regulation by means of storage/pondage
 Capacity may be estimated
Let capacity =S2 (<S1)
HYDRO at PEAK

Lean Flow season 900MW


150 m3/s
(T1- T2) and (T6 –T7) HYDRO
(Peak)
STEAM
(Base)
100%
(T3-T4) and
(T5 – T6)

900MW

S(P)

H(I)

S(B)
100%
(T2-T3)
and
(T4 – T5)

AMPLE flow 900MW

S(P)
Lf =0.9
Flow =405 m3/s
H(B)
100%
 S2 was required to maintain dependable flow of 150
m3/s in the lean season
 Not much water being wasted inspite of a smaller
holding capacity.
 This is on account of hydro operating at a much higher
load factor (= 0.9) during the ample flow season.
REGULATION IS CLEARLY FOR DEPENDABLE
FLOW AS WELL AS INCREASED HYDRO OUTPUT

CAN WE GET STILL MORE BY UTILIZING


THE WATER THAT IS BEING SPILLED????
500 500MW
S3 S
Q DEP (reqd.) (m3/s)

w
400
R R 400MW

300
300MW

S2
200
200MW
QDEP=150m3/s
100
100MW
T3 T5
T4 T9
T2 T10 T1
0
T1 T6 T7 0
T8

S3 Additional
Storage

S2
(T1 –T2) &
(T9 – T10)
T8 –T9 (T2 –T3) (T3-T4)
(T4-T5), (T6-T7),
T5 –T6 (T7 – T8)

H
H
H

Regulation: (1) Dependable flow


(2) Maximum Hydro Energy output
Total cost curve

Cost of storage
Cost

Cost of thermal power

S opt
Storage
 INITIALLY, FOR ‘STAND ALONE’ HYDRO, REGULATION IS ONLY FOR DEPENDABLE FLOW
(CASE OF ALL HYDRO SYSTEM)

 IN A GROWING SYSTEM WITH STEAM BASED ADDITIONAL CAPACITY, DEPENDABLE FLOW


REQUIREMENT REDUCES AND, THEREFORE, SO ALSO STORAGE CAPACITY. (CASE OF
MIXED HYDRO-STEAM SYSTEM WITH HYDRO DOMINATING)
 MANAGING HYDRO REQUIRES CARE AS HYDRO CAN TAKE ALTERNATIVE AND
COMPETING POSITIONS ON THE LOAD CURVE WITH DIFFERENT REQUIREMENTS FOR
STREAM POWER.
 REGULATION IS FOR DEPENDABLE FLOW AND MAXIMUM HYDRO OUTPUT

 IT IS ENTIRELY POSSIBLE THAT WHEN THE SYSTEM EVOLVES FURTHER WHERE STEAM
BECOMES DOMINANT, THE DEPENDABLE FLOW REQUIREMENT MAY REDUCE
FURTHER AND TO A LEVEL WHERE DEPENDABLE FLOW REQUIREMENT IS LESS THAN THE
MINIMUM FLOW IN STREAM

 REGULATION IN THIS LATTER CASE IS REQUIRED ONLY FOR MAXIMIZING CHEAP HYDRO
ENERGY OUTPUT

 ROLE OF STEAM CAPACITY IS THE SAME AS THAT OF STORAGE. A


LARGER PART
OF THE INSTALLED HYDRO CAPACITY BECOMES FIRM
STEAM VS HYDRO:
(1) USE HYDRO AT LARGE LOAD FACTORS (BASE POSITION) WHILE STEAM MAY BE
PREFERABLE AT LOW LOAD FACTORS (PEAK POSITION)
(2) HYDRO AT BASE POSITION IS ONLY POSSIBLE DURING AMPLE FLOWS WHILE
DURING LOW FLOW SEASON HYDRO CANNOT TAKE ANY OTHER POSITION
BUT THE PEAK

Cost/kWh

Steam

Hydro
0.3
Lf
Environmental Considerations

High-head hydropower systems with accompanying large storages can produce large
amount of power. However, large hydropower facilities, while essentially pollution-free
to operate, still are seen to have undesirable effects on the environment.

Some of these environmental impacts are just beginning to unravel


Water in a reservoir is usually warmer in winter and
cooler in summer.
Release of this altered water affects water temperature
in the d/s reach and has adverse impacts on local flora
and fauna often creating an environment that is alien to
the endemic species.
CASE:
A substantial decrease in fishing success for Atlantic
salmon and Sewin on the River Towy on account of
reduced water temperature caused by the bottom
water discharge from Llyn Brianne, a dam created in
the 1960s.
 Supersaturation occurs when air becomes trapped
in water spilled over a dam as it hits the pool
below, creating turbulence.
 Nitrogen levels in the water can increase
dramatically.
 The affected water does not lose the excess
nitrogen quickly and enters body tissues of fish
and other species.
 Migration from an area supersaturated with
nitrogen to a lower pressure area can cause a
condition similar to “bends" and further lead
injury and even cause fish-kill on a wide scale.
 Sediments (fine organic and inorganic materials) can collect
behind a dam.
 Ecosystem is affected because downstream habitat conditions get
altered supply of important organic and inorganic nutrients is also
stopped.
 Consequent "nutrient loading" in the reservoir causes oxygen
depletion as more nutrients implies more organisms populate the
system and hence consumption of more oxygen that supports life
processes.
 Trapping of gravel by the dam implies disruption of the (gravel
supported) process that facilitates establishment of spawning
areas for fish thus affecting important habitat conditions.
 Lack of streamside vegetation results in increased stream bank
erosion and destruction of habitat of species resident along the
riparian zones. This destruction of stream banks when flow starts
cutting deeply into the ‘unprotected’ river banks.
 Ecosystem changes at a project site results in a
new pattern of biological activity.
 A new (dynamic) equilibrium takes hold
bringing about changes taxonomic mix (plants,
fish, and wildlife that populate these areas).
 Over time some species continue to do well,
newer ones start populating these areas while
there are those that see a gradual, sharp, or
complete decline.
 Increasingly, plans for proposed Hydro systems
entail complete diversion into HRT and eventually
the turbine.
 The intervening stretch between the site of
diversion and where the tail race release returns to
the stream carries little to zero flows and clearly
has a deleterious impact on flora and fauna.
 Increasing awareness on needs of the environment
necessitates a review of methodology normally
used to estimate Hydro Power Potential at a given
site.
Conceptually, Firm Power in Stream is based
upon minimum available flows in the stream
and decides whether the site has economic
potential and yield reasonable returns on
investment
The site for which flow duration curve is shown seems to be promising

Firm or Prime Power and


Hydro power potential
Dump or Secondary
Power

Minimum flow in stream

Flow Duration Curve


 If the entire minimum flow in the river is
designated as Environmental Flow?
That is the entire minimum flow is required to
flow uninterrupted!

 What happens to Firm Power and the resultant


Hydro Power Potential?
Flow for fish –
not to be diverted through HRT
for turbines

Minimum flow in stream

Flow Duration Curve


Firm Power =0; site not promising now in
the absence of planned storage?

Dump Power
hydropower.org
 Fossil - 62 %
 Hydropower - 19 %
 Nuclear - 17 %
 Biomass - 0.9 %
 Geothermal - 0.3 %
 Wind - 0.06 %
 Solar - 0.01 %
 THERMAL = 89,276 MW (64 %)
 HYDRO = 34,681 MW (25 %)
 NUCLEAR = 4,120 MW (3 %)
 RENEWABLE ENERGY
 SOURCES = 10,175 MW (8 %)
 TOTAL = 1,38,252 MW

 PEAKING SHORTAGE = 13.8 %
 ENERGY SHORTAGE = 9.6 %
 PROJECTED DEMAND BY 2012 = 2,06,440 MW

SOURCE: CEA
Wisconsin Valley Improvement Company, http://www.wvic.com/hydro-facts.htm
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
IEA.org
 Canada, 341,312 GWh (66,954 MW installed)
 USA, 319,484 GWh (79,511 MW installed)
 Brazil, 285,603 GWh (57,517 MW installed)
 China, 204,300 GWh (65,000 MW installed)
 Russia, 173,500 GWh (44,700 MW installed)
 Norway, 121,824 GWh (27,528 MW installed)
 Japan, 84,500 GWh (27,229 MW installed)
 India, 82,237 GWh (22,083 MW installed)
 France, 77,500 GWh (25,335 MW installed)

1999 figures, including pumped-storage hydroelectricity

“Hydroelectricity,” Wikipedia.org
 Head
 Water must fall from a higher elevation to a lower one to
release its stored energy.
 The difference between these elevations (the water levels in the
forebay and the tailbay) is called head
 Dams: three categories
 high-head (250 or more metres)
 medium-head (30 to 250 m)
 low-head (less than 30 m)
 Power is proportional to the product of
head x flow

http://www.wapa.gov/crsp/info/harhydro.htm
Major components of a
Hydroelectric Power Plant

 Storage/Pondage
 Diversion facility
 Head works i.e. power intake, head regulator and de-silting chambers
etc.
 Communication pathway for resident fauna
 Head race tunnels/channels
 Surge shaft/surge chambers
 Pressure shaft/Penstock
 Governing system and other control systems
 Power house and transmission system
 Tailrace channel or tailrace tunnel.
 Large-hydro
 More than 100 MW feeding into a large electricity grid
 Medium-hydro
 15 - 100 MW usually feeding a grid
 Small-hydro
 1 - 15 MW - usually feeding into a grid
 Mini-hydro
 Above 100 kW, but below 1 MW
 Either stand alone schemes or more often feeding into the grid
 Micro-hydro
 From 5kW up to 100 kW
 Usually provided power for a small community or rural industry in
remote areas away from the grid.
 Pico-hydro
 From a few hundred watts up to 5kW
 Remote areas away from the grid.
www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/micro_hydro_power.pdf
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
 Hydroelectric plants:

 Start easily and quickly and change power output


rapidly

 Complement large thermal plants (coal and nuclear),


which are most efficient in serving base power loads.
 Impoundment
 Bhakra
 Diversion or run-of-river systems
 In India - Mostly so
 Most significantly smaller
 Pumped Storage
 Indian example: Tehri Hydro Project
 Two way flow
 Pumped up to a storage reservoir and returned to a
lower elevation for power generation
 A mechanism for energy storage, not net energy
production
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/hydro_plant_types.html
 CREATES HEAD BY HEADING UP WATER
IN THE RESERVOIR FOLLOWING
IMPOUNDMENT

 ENABLES REGULATION OF SUPPLIES IN


ORDER TO MATCH VARIABILITY IN
SUPPLY WITH VARIABILITY IN DEMAND
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
Often only incidental but some can operate as base
load Stations. Minimal Rehabilitation and
Run of River without pondage
Resettlement ( R&R)
and Catchment Area Treatment ( CAT) issues
Has sufficient pondage for meeting the diurnal
variation of power demand for upto a week. Provides
Run of River with pondage
for 4 to 8 hours of peak power. Has limited R&R and
CAT issues.

Has large storage capacity to enable variation of


Storage power generation as per demand. Has maximum R&R
and CAT issues.

Operates in turbine and pump mode. During off-peak


Pumped Storage hours water is pumped back to provide peaking power
under turbine mode.

Run of River Projects with pondage have advantage of providing crucial peak power and
without need for large storages

149
 Kaplan 2 < H < 40
 Francis 10 < H < 350
 Pelton 50 < H < 1300
 Turgo 50 < H < 250

(H = head in meters)

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003


POWER THAT CAN BE DELIVERED BY A
SPECIFIC PLANT OVER A CERTAIN PERIOD
WITH AT LEAST 90 –95% CERTAINTY

A RUN-OF-RIVER SCHEME HAS A LOW FIRM


POWER CAPACITY

STORAGE HAS A MULTIPLIER EFFECT ON


CAPACITY FOR FIRM POWER
FOR A CONNECTED HYDROPOWER SCHEME:
FIRM POWER CAPACITY OF SINGULAR PLANTS
MAY NOT BE SO IMPORTANT

FOR A SMALL STAND ALONE HYDRO SCHEME


THAT SUPPLIES POWER TO AN ISOLATED
AREA:
FIRM POWER IS EXTREMELY IMPORTANT AS
FAILURE TO MEET DEMAND COULD RESULT
IN POWER SHORTAGES AND BLACKOUTS
 WATER AVAILABILITY AT A GIVEN SITE SHOWS HIGH TEMPORAL
VARIABILITY
 WATER AVAILABILITY IS ALSO HIGHLY UNCERTAIN
 DEMAND IS NOT CONSTANT
 OFTEN DEMAND PATTERN IS DISCORDANT AND OUT OF PHASE
WITH WATER AVAILABILITY
 UNCERTAINTY IN DEMAND TENDS TO MAGNIFY COMPLEXITY ON
ACCOUNT OF UNCERTAINTY IN WATER AVAILABILITY
 GEOLOGICAL UNCERTAINITIES
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES INCLUDING SUBMERGENCE AND
RESULTING FRAGMENTATION RESULTING IN DISJOINTED
HABITATS AND HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
 REHABILITATION AND RESETTLEMENT
 REMOTE LOCATION OF PROJECT SITES
Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003
 Dam - Most hydropower plants rely on a dam that
holds back water, creating a large reservoir.

 Intake - Gates on the dam open and gravity pulls the


water through the penstock, a pipeline that
leads to the turbine. Water builds up
pressure as it flows through this pipe.

 Turbine - The water strikes and turns the large blades


of a turbine, which is attached to a
generator above it by way of a shaft.
The most common type of turbine for
hydropower plants is the Francis Turbine

155
 Generators - As the turbine blades turn, so do a series
of magnets inside the generator. Giant
magnets rotate past copper coils, producing
alternating current (AC) by moving electrons.

 Transformer-The transformer inside the powerhouse


takes the AC and converts it to higher-
voltage current.

 Power lines - Out of every power plant come four wires:


the three phases of power being produced
simultaneously plus a neutral or
ground common to all three.

 Outflow - Used water is carried through pipelines, called


tailraces, and re-enters the river downstream.
156
 Generator
 Transformer
 Hydro Turbines
 Governor
 Controlling system and Protection
system
 Governor
 Drainage system
 Switchyard

157
Generator
Transformer
Hydro Turbines
Governor
Controlling system and Protection system
Governor
Drainage system
Switchyard

158
Wisconsin Valley Improvement Company, http://www.wvic.com/hydro-facts.htm
 Loss of forests, wildlife habitat, species
 Degradation of upstream catchment areas due to inundation
of reservoir area
 Rotting vegetation also emits greenhouse gases
 Loss of aquatic biodiversity, fisheries, other downstream
services
 Cumulative impacts on water quality, natural flooding
 Disrupt transfer of energy, sediment, nutrients
 Sedimentation reduces reservoir life, erodes turbines
 Creation of new wetland habitat
 Fishing and recreational opportunities provided by new
reservoirs
 Environmental Benefits of Hydro
• No operational greenhouse gas emissions
• Savings (kg of CO2 per MWh of electricity):
– Coal 1000 kg
– Oil 800 kg
– Gas 400 kg
• No SO2 or NOX
 Non-environmental benefits
– flood control, irrigation, transportation, fisheries and
– tourism.

162
 Sudden Floods
 Water Availability (Dependant upon Monsoon)
 Loss of land under the reservoir.
 Interference with the transport of sediment by the
dam.
 Problems associated with the reservoir.
 Climatic and seismic effects.
 Impact on aquatic ecosystems, flora and fauna.

163
 Land use – inundation and displacement of people
 Impacts on natural hydrology
 Increase evaporative losses
 Altering river flows and natural flooding cycles
 Sedimentation/silting
 Impacts on biodiversity
 Aquatic ecology, fish, plants, mammals
 Water chemistry changes
 Mercury, nitrates, oxygen
 Bacterial and viral infections
 Tropics
 Seismic Risks
 Structural dam failure risks
 Established in 1998
 Mandates
 Review development effectiveness of large dams and
assess alternatives for water resources and energy
development; and
 Develop internationally acceptable criteria and
guidelines for most aspects of design and operation of
dams
 Highly socially aware organization
 Concern for indigenous and tribal people
 Seeks to maximize preexisting water and energy
systems before making new dams
 Untapped U.S. water energy resources are immense
 Water energy has superior attributes compared to other renewables:
 Nationwide accessibility to resources with significant power potential
 Higher availability = larger capacity factor
 Small footprint and low visual impact for same capacity
 Water energy will be more competitive in the future because of:
 More streamlined licensing
 Higher fuel costs
 State tax incentives
 State RPSs, green energy mandates, carbon credits
 New technologies and innovative deployment configurations
 Significant added capacity is available at competitive unit costs
 Relicensing bubble in 2000-2015 will offer opportunities for capacity increases,
but also some decreases
 Changing hydropower’s image will be a key predictor of future development
trends

Hall, Hydropower Capacity Increase Opportunities (presentation), Idaho National Laboratory, 10 May 2005
www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/pdf/hall_may10.pdf

You might also like