CELL MEMBRANE PHYSIOLOGY

The plasma membrane

 Functions of the plasma membrane
• Acts as a barrier separating inside and outside
of the cell
• Controls the flow of substances into and out
of the cell
• Helps identify the cell to other cells (e.g.,
immune cells)
• Participates in intercellular signaling

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 • flexible yet strong barrier
that surrounds and contains
Plasma membrane the cytoplasm
• Best described using the fluid
mosaic model
• Fluid mosaic model
– resembles a continually
moving sea of fluid lipids that
contains a mosaic of many
different proteins
– Some proteins float freely like
icebergs in the lipid sea,
whereas others are anchored
at specific locations like
icelands

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Plasma membrane • The basic structural framework
structure - • two back to back layers made up
lipid bilayer of three types of lipid molecules;
– phospholipids (75%),
– cholesterol (20%), and
– glycolipids (5%).

• The bilayer arrangement occurs

because the lipids are
amphipathic molecules, which
means that they have both polar
and non-polar parts.

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Plasma membrane Phospholipids (75%)
structure -
lipid bilayer
• the polar part is the
phosphate-containing head
which is hydrophilic
• The non-polar parts are the
two long fatty acid tails,
which are hydrophobic
hydrocarbon chains
• hydrophilic head face
outward while hydrophobic
fatty acid tails in each half of
the bilayer point toward one
another
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 Plasma membrane structure
lipid bilayer
Cholesterol (20%)

• Cholesterol molecules are weakly

amphipathic
• interspersed among other lipids in
both layers of the membrane

Glycolipids (5%)

• appear only in the membrane layer

that faces the extracellular fluid,
• It is the reason the two sides of the
bilayer are asymmetric, or different.

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 Plasma membrane
structure -
membrane proteins
Integral proteins
• extend through the lipid
bilayer and are firmly
embedded in it.
• Most are trans membrane
proteins
• Like membrane lipids,
integral membrane proteins
are amphipathic.
• hydrophilic regions protrude
into either the watery
extracellular fluid or the
cytosol,
• hydrophobic regions extend
among the fatty acids tails.

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 Plasma membrane
structure -
membrane proteins
Peripheral proteins
• not firmly embedded in the
membrane.
• attached to the polar heads
of membrane lipids or to
integral proteins at the inner
or outer surface of the
membrane
• Many are glycoproteins
• The carbohydrate portions
of the glycolipids and
glycoproteins form the
glycocalyx
• The pattern of carbohydrate
in the glycocalyx varies from
cell to cell.
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 Functions of Membrane Proteins

• the types of lipids in

cellular membranes
vary only slightly.
• different assortments
of proteins determine
many of the
membrane’s functions.

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 Functions of Membrane Proteins
Ion channels (integral)
• pores or holes that specific ions,
such as potassium ions (K+), can
flow through to get into or out of
the cell. Most are selective

Carriers/transporters (integral)
• selectively move polar substance or
ion from one side of the membrane
to the other

Receptors (integral)
• receptors serve as cellular recognition sites.
Each receptor recognizes and binds a specific
type of molecule (ligand) 10
 • Enzymes (integral and
Functions of Membrane peripheral)
Proteins – catalyze specific chemical
reactions at the inside or outside
surface of the cell.
• Linkers (integral and peripheral)
– Anchors filaments inside and
outside the plasma membrane,
providing structural stability and
shape for the cell.
• Identity markers (glycoprotein)
– Distinguishes your cells from
anyone’s
– E.g., ABO blood identiy markers

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 Membrane Permeability
• Plasma membranes show selective permeability

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 Membrane Permeability
The lipid bilayer
• highly permeable to nonpolar
molecules such as O2, CO2 and
steroids
• moderately permeable to small,
uncharged polar molecules, such
as water and urea
• impermeable to ions and large,
uncharged polar molecules, such
as glucose
• the more hydrophobic or lipid-
soluble a substance is, the greater
the membrane’s permeability to
that substance
trans-membrane proteins
• act as channels and carriers
• increase the plasma
membrane’s permeability to
a variety of ions and
uncharged polar molecules
• Channels and carriers are
very selective.
• Each one helps a specific
molecule or ion to cross the
membrane.
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 • selective permeability of the plasma
membrane allows cells to maintain
Gradients across the different concentrations of certain
plasma membrane substances on either side of the plasma
membrane
• A concentration gradient
– is a difference in the concentration of a
chemical from one place to another.
• electrical gradient
– A difference in electrical charges
between two regions
– Because it occurs across the plasma
membrane, this charge difference is
termed the membrane potential
• electrochemical gradient.
– The combined influence of the
concentration gradient and the
electrical gradient on movement of a
particular ion

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 • Transport of material across
Transport across the the plasma membrane is
plasma membrane
essential to the life of a cell
• Certain substances must
move into the cell to support
metabolic reactions and
waste products moved out.
• Substances generally moved
via transport processes
classified as;
– passive or
– active, depending on whether
they require cellular energy

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 • Passive transport
Transport across the
plasma membrane – A substance moves down its
concentration or electrical
gradient to cross the
membrane using only its
own kinetic energy. E.g.,
diffusion
• Active transport
– Cellular energy (ATP) is used
to drive the substance uphill
against its concentration or
electrical gradient.

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 Passive processes
Simple diffusion
• substances move freely through
the lipid bilayer
• without the help of membrane
transport proteins
• E.g., O2, CO2 and N gases; fatty
acids; steroids; and fat soluble
vitamins (A, D,E and K). small
uncharged polar molecules such
as water, urea, and small alcohols

Facilitated diffusion
• integral membrane protein assists a specific substance across the
membrane.
• The integral membrane can be either a membrane channel or a carrier.
• E.g., Polar or charged solutes: glucose, fructose, vit and ions such as K+,
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Cl-, Na+ and Ca+
 • Osmosis
– type of diffusion in which there is
Passive processes net movement of a solvent
through a selectively permeable
membrane
– In living systems, the solvent is
water,
• During osmosis, water molecules
pass through a plasma
membrane in two ways;
– simple diffusion
• by moving between neighboring
phospholipid molecules in the lipid
bilayer
– Aquaporin
• which are integral membrane
proteins that function as water
channels.

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 Passive processes
Common terms in understanding
osmosis

 Hydrostatic pressure
• the pressure exerted by a
fluid at equilibrium at a given
point within the fluid, due to
the force of gravity.

 Osmotic pressure
• minimum pressure which needs to be applied
to a solution to prevent the inward flow of
water across a semipermeable membrane.
• osmotic pressure of the cytosol is the same as
the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid
outside the cells. Cell volume and shape does
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not change
 Solution’s tonicity
 Tonicity
• is a measure of the solution’s
ability to change the volume of
cells by altering their water
content.
• A solution can either be; isotonic,
hypotonic or hypertonic

 Isotonic solution
• The concentrations of solutes that
cannot cross the plasma membrane
are the same on both side of the
membrane in this solution. E.g., 0.9
% NaCl solution called normal
saline solution, is isotonic to RBC.
RBC maintain their shape and
volume 20
 • Hypotonic solution
– has a lower concentration of solutes
than the cytosol inside the RBCs
Solution’s tonicity
– Water molecules enter the cells
faster than they leave, causing the
RBCs to swell and eventually to burst
(hemolysis).
– Pure water is very hypotonic and
causes rapid hemolysis.
• Hypertonic solution
– Has a higher concentration of
solutes than does the cytosol inside
RBCs. E.g., 2% NaCl solution.
– water molecules move out of the
cells faster than they enter, causing
the cells to shrink (crenation).

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Transport across the
• Involves Movement of
plasma membrane substances against a
Active processes concentration gradient
• Active transport
– considered an active process
because energy is required for
carrier proteins to move solutes
across the membrane against a
concentration gradient
• Two sources of cellular energy
can be used to drive active
transport:
– Energy obtained from hydrolysis
of ATP( primary active transport)
– energy stored in an ionic
concentration gradient
(secondary active transport)

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 Active transport
(primary)
 Primary Active Transport
• energy derived from
hydrolysis of ATP changes
the shape of a carrier
protein, which pumps a
substance across a plasma
membrane against its
concentration gradient

• Substances transported • The most prevalent primary active transport

include; Na+, K+, Ca+, H+, I-, mechanism expels sodium ions (Na+) from
Cl- and other ions. the cell and brings potassium ions (K+) in.
• Na+ K+ pump or Na+ K+ ATPase.
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 Active transport
(secondary)
 Secondary active transport
• energy stored in Na+ or H+
concentration gradient is used to
drive other substances across the
membrane against their
concentration gradients
• secondary active transport
indirectly uses energy obtained
from the hydrolysis of ATP.

• Antiporters move substances in opposite directions

across the membrane. E.g., Na+ -H+ and Na+ - Ca+
• Sympoters move substances in the same direction across
the membrane. E.g., Na+ -glucose and Na+ -amino acid
symporter 24
 • A vesicle is a small, spherical sac
• A variety of substances are transported
Active processes in vesicles from one structure to
(Transport in vesicles) another within cells.
• Divided in two; endocytosis and
exocytosis
Endocytosis
– Movement of substances into a cell in
vesicles
– Divided into 3;
• Receptor mediated endocytosis
• Phagocytosis
• Bulk phase endocytosis or pinocytosis

Exocytosis
– Movement of substances out of a cell in
secretory vesicles that fuse with the
plasma membrane and release their
content into the extracellular fluid.

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Endocytosis -
receptor mediated
endocytosis
• highly selective
• cells take up specific
ligands.
• A vesicle forms after a
receptor protein in the
plasma membrane
recognizes and bind to a
particular particle in the
extracellular fluid. E.g.,
uptake of LDL

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 Transport in vesicles

 PHAGOCYTOSIS
• cell engulfs large solid particles,
such as worn- out cells, whole
bacteria, or viruses.
• Only a few body cells called
phagocytes macrophages and
neutrophils are able to carry out
phagocytosis.
• Is vital defense mechanism that
protects the body from disease

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 Active processes
(transport in vesicles)
BULK- PHASE ENDOCYTOSIS OR
PINOCYTOSIS
• Most body cells carry out bulk
phase endocytosis,
• a form of endocytosis in which
tiny droplets of the extracellular
fluid are taken up.
• No receptor proteins are
involved; all solutes dissolved in
the extracellular fluid are
brought into the cell.
• Occurs in most cells, especially
absorptive cells in the intestines
and kidneys

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 Active processes
(transport in vesicles)

EXOCYTOSIS

• releases materials from a

cell.
• All cells carry out
exocytosis, but it is
especially important in
two types of cells:
I. Secretory cells that
liberate digestive
enzymes, hormones,
mucus, or other
secretions
II. Nerve cells that release
substances called
neurotransmitters 30
Receptor mediated endocytosis
 Active processes
Steps involve in receptor mediated endocytosis
1. Binding. On the extracellular side of the membrane, an
LDL particle that contains cholesterol binds to a specific
receptor in the plasma membrane to form a receptor-LDL
complex. The receptors are integral proteins that are
concentrated in regions of the plasma membrane called
clathrin coated pits. Here, a protein called clathrin
attaches to the membrane on its cytoplasmic side. Many
clathrin molecules come together, forming a basketlike
structure around the receptor-LDL complexes that causes
the membrane to invaginate (fold inward).
 Receptor mediated endocytosis
• 2.Vesicle formation. The invaginated edges of the
membrane around the clathrin-coated pit fuse, and a small
piece of the membrane pinches off. The resulting vesicle,
known as a clathrin- coated vesicle, contains the receptor –
LDL complexes.
• 3. Uncoating. Almost immediately after it is formed, the
clathrin coated vesicles loses its clathrin coat to become
uncoated vesicle. Clathrin molecules either return to the
inner surface of the plasma membrane or help form coats
on other vesicles inside the cell.
• 4. Fusion with endosome. The uncoated vesicle quickly
fuses with a vesicle known as an endosome. Within an
endosome, the LDL particles separate from their receptors.
 Receptor mediated endocytosis
• 5. Recycling of the receptors to plasma membrane. Most of the
receptors accumulate in enlongated protrusions of the endosome.
These pinch off, forming transport vesicles that return the receptors
to the plasma membrane. An LDL receptor is returned to the
plasma membrane about 10 minutes after it enters a cell.
• 6. Degradation in lysosomes. Other transport vesicles, which
contain the LDL particles, bud off the endosome and soon fuse with
a lysosome. Lysosomes contains many digestive enzymes. Certain
enzymes breakdown the large protein and lipid molecules of the
LDL particle into amino acids, fatty acids, and cholesterol. These
smaller molecules then leave the lysosome. The cell uses
cholesterol for rebuilding its membranes and for synthesis of
steroids, such as estrogen. Fatty acids and amino acids can be used
for ATP production or build other molecules needed by the cell.