EDC - Unit 4 Final

Electronic Devices & Circuits
(Unit – IV / BJT & JFET Amplifiers)
Prepared By
Dr. K. Umapathy
1
Syllabus / Unit - IV
• BJT & FET AMPLIFIERS:
• Small Signal Analysis of Common Emitter
Amplifier – AC Load Line - Voltage Swing
Limitations – Common Collector and Common
Base Amplifiers – Small Signal Analysis of JFET
and MOSFET Amplifiers – Common Source
Amplifier -Differential Amplifiers – CMRR -
Bootstrapping Technique – Darlington Amplifier
– Cascade Amplifier – Cascode Amplifier.
2
Introduction to Amplifiers
3
Introduction to Amplifiers
• An amplifier defined as device which produces a large
electrical output similar to that of the input signal.
• Basically an amplifier needs a dc source of energy for
amplification either from a battery or a DC supply.
• It contains a active device like BJT, JFET to provide the
control function.
• This active device converts the energy from dc source at
the input to an energy at the output which is
proportional to the applied ac signal.
• If the output signal proportional to the input signal –
Linear amplifier – otherwise Non-linear amplifier.
4
Classification of Amplifiers
• 1) Based upon the input signal –
(a) Small signal amplifier (b) Large signal amplifier
• 2) Based upon the output signal –
(a) Voltage amplifier (b) Power amplifier
• 3) Based upon the configuration –
(a) Common emitter (b) Common Base (c) Common
collector
• 4) Based upon the biasing conditions –
(a) Class A (b) Class B (c) Class AB (d) Class C
• 5) Based upon the nature of Load resistance –
(a) Wideband amplifiers (b) Tuned Amplifiers
5
Classification of Amplifiers (contd)
• 6) Based upon the number of stages –
(a) Single stage amplifier (b) Multi-stage amplifier
• 7) Based upon the method of coupling –
(a) Direct coupled (b) RC coupled (c) Transformer
coupled
• 8) Based upon the frequency response –
(a) DC amplifier (b) AF amplifier (c) RF amplifier (d) UHF
amplifier
6
Fig 1 – Basic Transistor Amplifier
7
Basic Transistor Amplifier
• The basic circuit of an amplifier using NPN transistor in
CE configuration is shown in figure 1.
• It is called basic common emitter transistor amplifier.
• The supplies VBB and VCC forward bias the emitter-base
junction and reverse bias the collector-base junction
respectively so that the transistor can operate in active
region.
• Under this condition – a dc collector IC flows through the
resistance RC which is called dc collector current.
• During the positive half cycle of ac input signal – the
emitter-base junction more forward biased which
increases the collector current – more voltage drop
across RC. 8
Basic Transistor Amplifier (contd)
• During the negative half cycle of ac input signal – the
emitter-base junction less forward biased which
decreased the collector current – less voltage drop
across RC.
• Hence a small ac input signal at the input – produces a
large ac signal at the output.
• Thus the transistor acts as an amplifier.
9
Topic 1
Small Signal CE Transistor Amplifier
10
Fig 1 - CE Transistor Amplifier
11
Introduction to CE Amplifier
• Figure 1 shows a common emitter amplifier using NPN
transistor.
• The input ac signal applied across the base-emitter
terminals and output signal across the collector-emitter
terminals.
• The emitter-base junction and collector-base junction
are forward biased and reverse-biased respectively by
the VCC supply along with the resistors – R1, R2 & RC.
• The two coupling capacitors – C1 & C2 block the dc signal
but allow ac signal to pass through them.
• The emitter bypass capacitor – CE connected across the
emitter resistance RE – to connect the emitter terminal
to ground for ac signals. 12
Introduction to CE Amplifier (contd)
• RL is the load resistance connected in parallel with
collector resistance RC forms the ac load ‘rL ‘.
• All voltages and currents of a transistor indicated by the
instantaneous total values – (dc + ac).
13
Analysis of CE Amplifier
• In a transistor amplifier – the dc sources set up dc
biasing currents and voltages whereas the ac sources
produce fluctuations in these voltages and currents to
get the amplifier signal at the output.
• 1) DC analysis : (i) Reduce all the ac sources to zero. (ii)
Open all the capacitors as they block dc. The circuit
obtained by this – dc equivalent circuit as shown in
Figure 3.
• 2) AC analysis: (i) (i) Reduce all the dc sources to zero.
(ii) Short all the capacitors as they pass ac. The circuit
obtained by this – ac equivalent circuit as shown in
Figure 4.
14
Fig 2 - AC Load of CE Amplifier
15
Fig 3 - DC Equivalent of CE Amplifier
16
CE Amplifier Parameters
• The complete ac equivalent circuit of amplifier obtained
by replacing the transistor by a small signal model as
shown in Figure 4.
• This circuit used to determine the amplifier parameters
such as Input resistance (Ri), Output Resistance (Ro),
Voltage Gain (AV), Current Gain (AI) and Power Gain (AP).
• Here re’ – ac resistance of the emitter-base junction as
seen by the input signal; β – CE dc current gain.
• 1) Input Resistance (Ri): resistance looking directly into
the base of transistor – given by ratio of base voltage to
base current. Ri = vb / ib = vin / ib
• Vin = β re’ ib hence
• Ri = β re’.ib / ib = β re’ 17
Fig 4 - AC Equivalent of CE Amplifier
18
CE Amplifier Parameters (contd)
• Input resistance of the amplifier stage –
Ris = RB II (β re’); Since RB >> β re’
= β re’
= Ri
2) Output Resistance: resistance looking into the collector
terminal – equal to RC; R0 = RC ; rL = RC II RL
where ‘rL’ is the ac load of the amplifier.
3) Current gain : ratio of the collector current to base
current - Ai = ic / ib Since ic = β.ib
Ai = β.ib / ib
=β
19
CE Amplifier Parameters (contd)
4) Voltage gain: ratio of output voltage to input voltage –
Av = v0 / vin
= ic.rL / β.ib.re’
= β.ib. rL / β ib re’
= rL / re’
If RL >> RC, then
Av = RC / re’
5) Power Gain: product of the current gain & voltage gain -
Ap = Ai.Av
= β. RC / re’
20
Characteristics of CE Amplifier
• Input resistance moderately low – range of 1K – 2K
• Output resistance moderately large – about 50K
• Higher current gain – range of 50 to 300
• Voltage gain in the order of 1500
• Large power gain in the order of 10, 000 (40 dB)
• Produces phase reversal of the input signal.
21
Topic 2
Swamped CE Transistor Amplifier

(Voltage Swing Limitations)
22
Swamped CE Amplifier
23
Introduction to Swamped Amplifier
• The voltage gain of a CE amplifier is given by rL / re’
where rL is the ac load and re’ is the ac resistance of the
emitter diode.
• The voltage gain of amplifier depends upon re’ which in
turn depends upon the temperature.
• If temperature increases – the voltage gain of amplifier
decreases.
• The variations in gain not acceptable in certain
applications where constant voltage gain required.
• This can be avoided by inserting a resistance rE in series
with the emitter as shown in figure 1.
• Now the emitter is no longer at ac ground.
24
Expression for Voltage Gain
• If the value of rE is larger than re’ –then all ac signal will
appear across rE.
• Now the emitter is said to be bootstrapped for
alternating current as well as direct current.
• The voltage gain for the amplifier given by –
Av = RC / (rE + re’); If rE >> re’ then Av = RC / rE
• Since the resistor rE is greater than re’ – the variations of
re’ due to temperature will not have any impact on the
voltage gain.
• Hence the resistor rE has swamped the variations of re’
thereby keeping the voltage gain stable.
• Hence this amplifier is called Swamped Amplifier.
25
AC equivalent of Swamped Amplifier
26
AC Equivalent of Swamped Amplifier
• Figure 2 shows the ac equivalent of swamped amplifier.
• Here the input resistance of the swamped amplifier
looking into the base terminal given by –
Ri = β (re’ + rE)
• The addition of resistor rE increases the input resistance
of the amplifier when compared to that of unswamped
amplifier.
27
Advantages of Swamped Amplifier
• Stable Voltage gain
• Higher Input Resistance
• Less distortion in the Output signal.
28
Topic 3
Small signal CB Transistor Amplifier
29
Fig 1 - CB Transistor Amplifier
30
Introduction
• Figure 1 shows the CB amplifier using NPN transistor.
• The supplies VEE and VCC forward bias the base-emitter
junction and reverse bias collector-base junction
respectively.
• The capacitors C1 and C2 are called coupling capacitors
as they allow ac and block dc currents.
• The operation point is set by the supplies VEE and VCC
along with the resistors RC and RE.
• The dc Collector-base voltage given by –
VCB = VCC – IC.RC
• An ac signal applied to the amplifier along with a source
resistance RS.
31
Principle of Operation
emitter-base junction less forward biased due to VEE
which decreases the collector current – less voltage
drop across RC –but VCB increases.
emitter-base junction more forward biased due to VEE
which increases the collector current – more voltage
drop across RC –but VCB decreases.
• There is no phase reversal between the input and
output signal but the collector current (output) is less
than the emitter current (input).
32
Analysis of CB Amplifier
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
33
Analysis of CB Amplifier (contd)
• From the dc equivalent of CB amplifier – the emitter
current given by –
IE =VEE – VBE / RE
• The collector current given by –
IC = IE
34
Fig 2 – DC Equivalent of CB Amplifier
35
Fig 3 – AC Equivalent of CB amplifier
36
Fig 4 - Complete CB Amplifier Circuit
37
CB Amplifier Parameters
shown in Figure 4.
seen by the input signal; α – CB dc current gain.
the base of transistor – Ri = vin / ie = re’ and input
resistance of the amplifier stage - Ris = RE II re’ = re’.
• Since the ac resistance re’ is very small – the input
resistance of CB amplifier is very small. 38
CB Amplifier Parameters (contd)
terminal – equal to RC; R0 = RC ; rL = RC II RL
3) Current gain : ratio of the collector current to emitter
current - Ai = ic / ie Since ic = α.ie
= α.ie / ie
=α
Av = v0 / vin
= ic.rL / ie.re’
= ie.rL / ie.re’
= rL / re’ 39
CB Amplifier Parameters (contd)
• If RL >> RC, then
Av = RC / re’
• 5) Power Gain: product of the current gain & voltage
gain -
Ap = Ai.Av
= α.RC / re’
40
Characteristics of CB Amplifier
• Input resistance very low – range of 30 – 150 Ohms
• Output resistance very high – about 500 K
• Current gain – less than unity
• Voltage gain in the order of 1500
• Power gain in the order of 30 dB
• No phase reversal between the input and output
signals.
41
Topic 4
Small Signal CC Transistor Amplifier
42
Fig 1 – Common Collector Amplifier
43
Introduction
• Figure 1 shows the CC amplifier using NPN transistor.
• Since the collector resistance RC is zero – the collector is
at ac ground – Grounded Collector amplifier.
• The capacitors C1 and C2 are called coupling capacitors
as they allow ac and block dc currents.
• The operation point is set by the supplies VBB and VCC
along with the resistors RB and RE.
• The dc Collector-emitter voltage given by –
• VCE = VCC – IE.RE
= VCC – V0 V0 is the output voltage.
• An ac signal applied to the amplifier along with a source
resistance RS across the base-collector terminals.
44
Principle of Operation
forward bias is increased due to VBB which increases the
base and emitter currents – more voltage drop across RE
– and V0 also increases.
forward bias is decreased due to VBB which decreases
the base and emitter currents – less voltage drop across
RE – and V0 also decreases.
• There is no phase reversal between the input and
output signal but the emitter voltage (output) follows
the base voltage (input).
• Hence CC amplifier called Emitter Follower.
45
Analysis of CC Amplifier
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
46
Analysis of CC Amplifier (contd)
• From the dc equivalent of CC amplifier – the emitter
current given by –
• IE = (VEE – VBE) / (RE + RB / β)
= VEE / (RE + RB / β) Since VEE >> VBE
47
Fig 2 – DC Equivalent of CC Amplifier
48
Fig 3 – AC Equivalent of CC Amplifier
49
Fig 4 – Complete CC Amplifier
50
CC Amplifier Parameters
shown in Figure 4.
seen by the input signal; β – CE dc current gain.
the base of transistor – Ri = β(re’+ rL) and input
resistance of the amplifier stage -
• Ris = RB II β(re’ + rL)
= β (re’ + rL) = β.rL where rL = RE II RL 51
CC Amplifier Parameters (contd)
terminal – R0 = rL II [re’+ (RB / β)]
= re’+ (RB / β)
3) Current gain : ratio of the emitter current to base
current - Ai = ie / ib
= (ic + ib) / ib
= 1 + (ic / ib)
=1+β
=β
52
CC Amplifier Parameters (contd)
Av = v0 / vin
= ie .rL / [ib .β(re’ + rL)]
= β ib. rL / [ib .β(re’ + rL)]
= rL / (rL + re’)
= rL / rL
=1 if re’ << rL
5) Power Gain: product of the current gain & voltage gain
Ap = Ai.Av
=β
53
Characteristics of CC Amplifier
• Input resistance very high – range of 20 K – 500 K
• Output resistance very low – about 50 - 1000 Ohms
• High Current gain in the order of 50 - 500
• Voltage gain less than unity
• Power gain much smaller compared to CE & CB
amplifiers.
• No phase reversal between the input and output
signals.
54
Comparison of Three Amplifier
Configurations
55
Comparison Table
S. Characteristics Common Common Common
No Emitter Base Collector
1 Input Moderate Lowest Highest
Resistance
2 Output Moderate Highest Lowest
Resistance
3 Current Gain High Unity Highest
4 Voltage Gain Highest High Unity
5 Power Gain Highest Moderate Lowest
6 Phase Reversal Yes No No
56
Small Signal JFET Models
57
Introduction to FET models
• The small signal FET model – common for both JFET and
MOSFET is used to relate the small changes in FET
voltages and currents about the quiescent operating
point.
• This model is different at low frequencies and at high
frequencies.
58
Fig 1 – Small Signal LF FET Model
59
Small Signal Low Frequency Model
• Figure 1 shows the small signal low frequency model of
a N channel FET.
• In this model, the gate-source junction represented by
an open circuit and no current drawn from the input
terminals of the device.
• The input resistance of the gate-source junction is very
high and in the order of 108 to 1010 ohms for JFET’s and
1010 to 1014 ohms for MOSFET’s.
• But for all practical purposes – the above values are
considered to be very large.
• Even though gate-source junction represented by an
open circuit – it decides the value of drain current.
60
Small Signal Low Frequency Model (contd)
• Drain current indicated by a voltage controlled current
source (gmVgs)whose value is proportional to gate-
source voltage (Vgs).
• Typical values for the transconductance – gm in the
order of 0.5 mA/V to 10 mA/V for JFET’s and 0.5 mA/V
to 20 mA/V for MOSFET’s.
• The drain resistance also called output resistance of FET
in the order of 100 K to 1 M ohms for JFET’s and 1 K to
50 K for MOSFET’’s.
• It is possible to convert the voltage controlled current
source into an equivalent voltage controlled voltage
source as shown in Figure 2.
• The parameter μ – called the amplification factor. 61
Fig 2 – Equivalent Voltage Source
62
Small Signal Low Frequency Model (contd)
• It is the product of the transconductance (gm) and the
drain resistance (rd) which is given by -
μ = gm.rd
63
Small Signal High Frequency Model
• Figure 3 shows the small signal high frequency model of
a FET.
• It is identical to low frequency model except the
addition of capacitances between each pair of
terminals.
Cgs Cgd Cds
Barrier capacitance Barrier capacitance Barrier capacitance
between the gate & between the gate & between the drain
source terminals drain terminals & source terminals
1 pF – 10 pF 1 pF – 10 pF 0.1 pF – 1 pF
64
Fig 3 – Small Signal HF FET Model
65
Topic 5
Small Signal Common Source JFET

Amplifier
66
Fig 1 – CS JFET Amplifier
67
Introduction
• Figure 1 shows the common source FET amplifier using
N channel device.
• The resistors R1 and R2 provide the voltage divider
biasing for the amplifier.
• The coupling capacitors are – C1 and C2 to couple the
input signal at the gate terminal and output signal
from the drain terminal respectively.
• The bypass capacitor CE – keeps the source terminal
effectively at ac ground.
68
Operation of CS Amplifier
• When an ac signal applied to the gate terminal –
produces variations in the gate-source voltage –
produces variations in the drain current.
• As the gate-source voltage increases –the drain
current increases – increased voltage drop across the
drain resistance (RD) but the drain voltage (output
voltage) decreases.
• The positive half cycle of the input – produces the
negative half cycle at the output.
• Hence the output voltage and input voltage are 180
degrees out of phase with each other.
• In this regard – it is similar to Common Emitter
amplifier. 69
Fig 2 – AC equivalent of CS Amplifier
70
Analysis of CS Amplifier
• Figure 2 shows the ac equivalent of CS amplifier. Three
parameters calculated – Voltage Gain, Input Resistance
and Output Resistance.
• 1) Voltage Gain : ratio of the output voltage to input
voltage .
Av = v0/vin
v0 = - id.rL Since rL = rd II (RD II RL)
= - gm vgs . rL
= - gm vgs. (RD II RL) Since rd >> (RD II RL)
= - gm vin. (RD II RL) Since vin = vgs
Av = - gm (RD II RL)
71
Analysis of CS Amplifier (contd)
• 2) Input Resistance : ratio of the input voltage to input
current –
Ri = Vin / Iin
• Since the input resistance of the FET is infinite and
expected to be high.
• Hence the input resistance of the amplifier stage –
Ris = Ri II (R1 II R2)
= (R1 II R2)
• 3) Output Resistance: the output resistance of FET is
rd. But the output resistance of the amplifier given by-
Ro = rd II (RD II RL) Since rd >> (R1 II R2)
= RD II RL 72
Topic 6
Small Signal Common Drain JFET

Amplifier
73
Fig 1 – Common Drain Amplifier
74
Introduction
• Figure 1 shows the Common Drain FET amplifier using
N channel device.
• The resistors Rs provides the self biasing for the
amplifier.
input signal at the gate terminal and output signal
from the source terminal respectively.
• It is similar to common collector amplifier.
75
Operation of CD Amplifier
• When a small ac signal applied to the gate terminal –
• As the gate-source voltage increases –the drain
current increases – increased voltage drop across the
source resistance (RE) - hence the output voltage v0
also increases.
positive half cycle at the output.
• Hence the output voltage and input voltage are in
phase with each other.
• In this regard – it is called Source Follower having high
input resistance. 76
Fig 2 – AC Equivalent of CD Amplifier
77
Analysis of CD Amplifier
• Figure 2 shows the ac equivalent of CDS amplifier.
Three parameters calculated – Voltage Gain, Input
Resistance and Output Resistance.
voltage .
Av = v0/vin
v0 = id.Rs Since id = gm.vgs
= gmvgs . Rs
vin = vgs + id.Rs = vgs + gmvgs.Rs
Av = gmvgs . Rs / (vgs + id.Rs)
= gmvgs.Rs / vgs (1 + gm.RS)
= RS / (RS + 1/gm) = 1 Since RS >> 1/gm
78
Analysis of CD Amplifier (contd)
current –
Ri = Vin / Iin
• Since the input resistance of the FET is infinite and
expected to be high.
Ris = Ri II RG
= RG Since Ri >> RG
rd. But the output resistance of the amplifier given by-
v0 = vin . RS / (RS + 1/gm) Hence R0 given by –
R0 = RS II 1/gm 79
Topic 7
Small Signal Common Gate JFET

Amplifier
80
Fig 1 – Common Gate Amplifier
81
Introduction
• Figure 1 shows the Common Gate FET amplifier using
N channel device.
input signal at the source terminal and output signal
from the drain terminal respectively.
• It is similar to common base amplifier.
82
Operation of CG Amplifier
• When a small ac signal applied to the gate terminal –
• As the gate-source voltage increases – the drain
current increases – hence the output voltage v0 also
increases.
positive half cycle at the output.
• Hence the output voltage and input voltage are in
phase with each other.
• In this regard – it is having low input resistance, high
output resistance, high voltage gain and no phase
reversal. 83
Fig 2 – AC Equivalent of CG Amplifier
84
Analysis of CG Amplifier
• Figure 2 shows the ac equivalent of Common Gate
amplifier with the FET device replaced by its low
frequency model.
• Three parameters to be calculated – Voltage gain,
Input Resistance and Output resistance.
voltage –
Av = v0/vin
v0 = id.RD Since id = gm.vgs
= gmvgs.RD
vin = vgs
Hence Av = gmvgs.RD / vgs = gmRD
85
Analysis of CG Amplifier (contd)
current –
Ri = Vin / Iin
= vgs / id Since id = gm.vgs
= vgs / gm.vgs
= 1 / gm
Ris = Rs II 1/gm
= Rs Since Ri >> Rs
86
Analysis of CG Amplifier (contd)
given by the ratio of output voltage to the output
current.
R0 = v0/I0
= id.RD / id
= RD
87
Topic 8
Differential Amplifier
88
Introduction
• The amplifier which amplifies the difference between
two input signals is called as Differential amplifier.
• The differential amplifier configuration is very much
popular and used in variety of analog circuits.
• It is a basic building block in operational amplifiers.
89
Introduction (contd)
• Here V1 and V2 are the two input signals of the
Differential amplifier and Vo is the single ended output
of Differential amplifier.
• In an ideal differential amplifier the output voltage Vo
is proportional to the difference between two input
voltages.
• Vo ∝ (V1 – V2)
Vo = Ad (V1 – V2)
90
Fig 2 – Differential Amplifier Circuit
91
Circuit Description
• Input 1 of differential amplifier is connected to the
base of transistor Q1 and input 2 of the differential is
connected to the base of another transistor.
• VCC and VEE are the two supplies for differential
amplifier.
• The circuits works proper even with a single supply
voltage.
• If to run the differential amplifier with a single supply
then connect VCC to supply voltage and VEE to ground.
92
Working of Differential Amplifier
• If input signal is applied to the base of transistor Q1
then there is voltage drop across collector resistor Rc1
so the output of the transistor Q1 is low.
• When there is no input voltage to the transistor Q1,
the voltage drop across resistor Rc1 is very less as a
result output transistor Q1 is high.
• When transistor Q1 is turned on, the current through
the emitter resistor Re increases as emitter current Ie is
almost equal to the collector current Ic.
• As a result voltage drop across resistor Re increases
and makes emitter of both transistors positive.
• In this condition transistor Q2 does not conduct as
there is no base voltage. 93
Working of Differential Amplifier (contd)
• As a result collector voltage of transistor Q2 is high.
• Hence the output is produced at the collector of
transistor Q2 when an input is applied to the base of Q1.
• Transistors Q1 and Q2 have the exactly same
characteristics.
• The two collector resistors are equal while the two
emitter resistances Re1 and Re2 are also equal.
Rc1 = Rc2 and Re1 = Re2
• The magnitudes of supply voltages + Vcc and - Vee also
same.
• If the input voltages Vs1 and Vs2 are equal then emitter
currents Ie1 and Ie2 are also equal.
94
Working of Differential Amplifier (contd)
• If Vs1 = Vs2 then Ie1 = Ie2
• Total emitter current is given as - Ie = Ie1 + Ie2
Ve = Vb – Vbe
• Vc1 = Vc2 = Vcc – IcRc
assuming collector resistances Rc1 = Rc2 = Rc
95
Three Modes of Input Combinations
• Single ended mode – an active signal is applied to only
one input while the other is grounded.
• Differential mode – two opposite polarity active
signals are applied to the amplifier.
• Common mode -
Two signals of the same amplitude, frequency and phase
are applied to the differential amplifier.
The output of the amplifier is ideally zero when
measured the difference between the output
96
Fig 3 – Single Ended Mode
97
Fig 4 – Differential Mode
98
Fig 5 – Common Mode
99
Two Modes of Output Combinations
• Single Ended Output :The input is applied and the
output is measured at one of the output
terminal.
• Double Ended Output: The input is in differential
mode and the output is measured between the
differences of two output terminals.
100
Differential Mode Gain
• Differential gain is the gain with which amplifier
amplifies the difference between two input signals.
• It is denoted as Ad.
Vo = Ad (Vd)
• Where Vd is the voltage difference between two input
signals i.e. Vd= V1 – V2
Ad= Vo / Vd
• Differential gain in dB is given as
Ad (dB)= 20 log10 (Vo / Vd)
101
Common Mode Gain
• If applied two input voltages are equal to the differential
amplifier then ideally output voltage must be zero.
• But it is not the case in practical amplifier because
output of differential amplifier not only depends on the
difference but also depends on the average level of the
2 inputs.
• Average level of the 2 input signals is called as common
mode signal denoted as - Vc = (V1 + V2) / 2
• The gain with which differential amplifier amplifies the
common mode signal is called as common mode gain.
• Ac = Vo / Vc
• So the total output of a differential amplifier is given as -
Vo = Ad Vd + AcVc 102
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
• In common mode configuration of differential
amplifier many noise signals appear as common input
to the both terminals of amplifier.
• So it better to reject such a common signal.
• CMRR is defined as the ability of differential to reject
the common mode signal.
• In other words it is defined as the ratio of differential
mode voltage gain Ad to the common mode gain Ac.
• CMRR = ρ = Ad / Ac
• Vo = AdVd [1 + (1/CMRR)(Vc / Vd]
103
Features of Differential Amplifier
• Differential voltage gain is high
• Common mode gain is low
• CMRR (common mode rejection ratio) is high
• Input impedance is high
• Wide bandwidth
• Low offset voltages and currents
• Output impedance is low
104
Applications of Differential Amplifier
• Differential amplifier is used as voltage comparator.
• It is used in voltage subtractors.
• Used in operational amplifiers to amplify the input
signal.
• Differential amplifier is used as a voltage follower.
105
Topic 9
Bootstrapping Technique
106
Introduction to Bootstrapping
• A bootstrap circuit is one where part of the output of
an amplifier stage is applied to the input in order to
increase the input impedance of the amplifier.
• Generally, any technique where part of the output of a
system is used at startup is called as bootstrapping.
• In MOSFET circuits, "bootstrapping" is commonly used
to mean pulling up the operating of a transistor above
the power supply rail.
• In analog circuit designs, a bootstrap circuit is an
arrangement of components intended to change
the input impedance of a circuit.
107
Introduction to Bootstrapping (contd)
• Usually it is intended to increase the impedance, by
using a small amount of positive feedback over two
stages.
• Because the feedback is positive, such circuits suffer
from poor stability and noise performance compared to
ones that don't bootstrap.
108
Fig 1 – Bootstrap Circuit
109
Bootstrap Circuit
• Bootstrapping is a technique used in the design of
transistor amplifier circuits to increase the input
impedance and thereby reduce the loading effects on
the input source.
• It involves the use of a bootstrap capacitor, which
provides positive feedback of ac signals to the base
junction of a transistor in an emitter follower circuit.
• Application of this feedback increases the effective
value of the base resistance.
• The amount of increase is a factor determined by the
voltage gain of the circuit.
110
Bootstrap Circuit (contd)
• A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has an inherently low
input impedance of typically 1 Ω to 50 kΩ which
reduces further after the addition of biasing transistors
such as a potential divider connected to the base
junction of a transistor.
• While it improves dc stability, these resistors have the
effect of shunting the input thereby reducing the input
resistance.
• These types of circuits pose a problem where high input
impedance is required, and therefore bootstrapping is a
technique that helps increase the input impedance.
111
Applications of Bootstrap Circuit
• A high impedance input is very useful for example in
radio circuits where the base junction of a transistor
connects to a ferrite coil to amplify the radio signal.
• Usually the amplifier stage is required to minimize the
loading on the coil for better amplification.
• It is also useful in instrumentation where it is required
to take accurate measurements using probes.
• A common emitter follower circuit shown in Figure 1
will achieve a one hundred-fold increase in the effective
value of Rb, when the voltage gain is 0.99.
• For a further increase in impedance, usually a two stage
direct-coupled circuit is utilized.
112
Topic 10
Darlington Amplifier
113
Fig 1 – Darlington Amplifier
114
Introduction
• The Darlington amplifier consists of two cascaded
emitter followers as shown in figure 1.
• The above configuration results in a set of improved
amplifier characteristics.
• It has high input resistance, low output resistance and
high current gain.
• The above characteristics make this amplifier as a
current amplifier.
• Here the voltage gain is less than unity.
115
Analysis of Darlington Amplifier
• Figure 1 shows the complete circuit of a Darlington
amplifier.
• Let Ib1 – base current of transistor Q1
Ib2 – base current of transistor Q2 equal to the
emitter current of transistor Q1 (Ie1)
Ie2 – emitter current of transistor Q2
β1 – current gain of transistor Q1
β2 – current gain of transistor Q2
1) Current Gain:
Ie1 = β1.Ib1
Ie2 = β2. Ib2
= β2. Ie1 = β1.β2. Ie1 = β2. Ie1
116
Analysis of Darlington Amplifier (contd)
• AI = Ie2 / Ie1 = β2
• 2) Input resistance:
The input resistance of the second stage given by –
Ri2 = β2(re2’ + RE) = β2 RE Since RE >> re2’
The input resistance looking into emitter of first
transistor given by –
Ri1 = β1(re1’ + Ri2) = β1.Ri2 = β1.β2.RE = β2 .RE
The input resistance of the amplifier stage –
Ris = (R1 II R2) II Ri1 = (R1 II R2) II β2 .RE
= R1 II R2 Since β2 .RE >> R1 II R2
117
• 3) Output resistance:
The output resistance of the first stage given by –
Ro1 = re1’ + (R1 II R2) / β1
The output resistance of the second stage given by-
Ro2 = re2’ + (R01) / β2
Ro2 = re2’ + [re1’ + (R1 II R2) / β1] / β2
= re2’ + (re1’ / β2) + (R1 II R2) / β2
= re2’ [Second & Third terms negligible]
118
• 4) Voltage Gain:
Av = vo / vin
Output voltage - v0 = Ie2.RE
Input voltage - vin = Ie1[re1’ + β2(re2’ + RE)]
by applying KVL to the input circuit of Darlington
amplifier.
Substuiting Ie1 = Ie2/β2 in the above -
vin = (Ie2 / β2).re1’ + Ie2 (re2’ + RE)]
Voltage Gain given by -
Av = Ie2.RE / [(Ie2 / β2).re1’ + Ie2 (re2’ + RE)]
= RE / [(re1’/ β2) + (re2’ + RE)] if RE >> other terms
=1 119
Darlington Pair
• Nowadays semiconductor manufacturers supply a pair
of identical transistors in a single package called
Darlington pair.
• Two transistors connected in such that the emitter of
one transistor connected to base of the other as shown
in figure 2.
• The Darlington pairs are available with both NPN and
PNP transistors.
• Hence a Darlington pair is a three terminal device
having base, emitter and collector with an extremely
high current gain.
120
Fig 2 – Darlington Pair
121
Topic 11
Cascaded Amplifier (Multi-stage

Amplifier)
122
Introduction to Multi-stage Amplifiers
• The voltage gain obtained from a single stage amplifier
is limited and not sufficient for all practical
applications.
• To achieve more voltage and power gain – more than
one stage of amplification required.
• Such an amplifier is called Multi-stage amplifier.
• Here the output of one stage given as input to next
stage as shown in figure 1.
• A multi-stage amplifier having two or more single
stage common emitter amplifiers is called Cascade
amplifier.
123
Introduction to Multi-stage Amplifiers (contd)
• A multi-stage amplifier having first stage as common
emitter and second stage as common base or common
collector is called Cascode amplifier.
• The voltage gain of a multi-stage amplifier is equal to
the product of gains of individual stages.
Avs = A1. A2. A3. An-1
• Figure 1 shows the block diagram for a multi-stage
amplifier.
124
Fig 2 – Cascade Amplifier
125
Introduction to Cascade Amplifier
• Figure 2 shows the two stage RC coupled transistor
amplifier consisting in CE configuration.
• RC, RB and CC form the coupling network.
• The capacitor C1 – to couple the input signal into base
of first transistor Q1.
• The capacitor C2 – to couple the output signal from the
collector of second transistor Q2 into the load.
• The capacitor CE – bypass the emitters to the ground.
126
Operation of Cascade Amplifier
• If an ac input signal is given to the first stage –
amplified by the first transistor across the collector
resistance RC and given as input to the second stage
through coupling capacitor CC.
• The second stage provides further amplification and
the overall gain is the product of gains of first and
second stages.
• The output signal of this cascade amplifier is in phase
with the input signal applied.
127
Fig 3 – AC Equivalent of Cascade Amplifier
128
Analysis of Cascade Amplifier
• The ac equivalent circuits for the first stage and second
stage are shown in figure 3 (a) and figure 3 (b).
• The voltage gain, input resistance and output
resistance will be calculated for first and second stages
separately.
First stage calculations:
• 1) Input resistance: Ri1 = RB II (β1.re1’) = β1.re1’
Where re1’ = 25 / IE1 (mA)
• 2) Output resistance: R01 = RC II Ri2
Where Ri2 = RB II (β2.re2’) = β2.re2’ and
re2’ = 25 / IE2 (mA)
129
Analysis of Cascade Amplifier (contd)
• 3) Voltage gain: Av1 = β1 * R01/ Ri1
= β1 * R01/ β1.re1’
= R01 / re1’
Second Stage Calculations:
1) Input resistance: Ri2 = RB II (β2.re2’) = β2.re2’
2) Output resistance: R02 = RC II RL
3) Voltage gain: Av2 = R02 / re2’
Overall Voltage gain:
Av = Av1. Av2 = (R01 / re1’) * (R02 / re2’)
= (R01.R02 / re’) Since re1’ = re2’
130
Topic 12
Cascode Amplifier
131
Fig 1 – Cascode Amplifier
132
Circuit Operation of Cascode Amplifier
• The input signal is applied at Q1 i.e at common emitter
stage and output is obtained at Q2.
• Vcc, R1, R2, R3, Re are used to bias transistor Q1 and Q2 in
active region. Re is used to make Q-point stable against
temperature variation.
• AC output voltage is obtained at RC collector and
coupling capacitors are used to block dc signal pass a
signals.
• AC signal is applied at base of Q1 which amplifies it with
unity gain & voltage V01 appears across collector of Q1.
• V01 acts as input to Q2 which further amplifies the signal
and voltage Vo appears across collector of CB
Configuration. 133
Circuit Operation of Cascode Amplifier (contd)
• To perform small signal analysis, the ac equivalent
circuit of the given amplifier is drawn.
• To draw the ac equivalent circuit all capacitors must be
replaced by short circuit and the DC sources connected
to ground.
134
Fig 2 – AC Equivalent of CE Stage
135
Fig 3 – AC Equivalent of CB Stage
136
Fig 4 – AC Equivalent of Cascode Amplifier
137
Small Signal Analysis
• First Stage (CE Stage) Calculations:
• 1) Input Resistance:
Ri1 = (R2 II R3) II (β1re1’) = β1re1’
Where re1‘ = 25 / IE1 (mA)
2) Output Resistance:
R01 = Ri2 = re2’
3) Voltage Gain:
Av1 = β1 * Ro1/ β1re1’
= Ro1/ re1’
138
Small Signal Analysis (contd)
• Second Stage (CB Stage) Calculations:
• 1) Input Resistance:
Ri2 = re2’
Where re2‘ = 25 / IE2 (mA)
2) Output Resistance:
R02 = RC II RL
3) Voltage Gain:
Av2 = α2 * Ro2/ Ri2
= α2 * Ro2/ re2’
4) Overall Voltage Gain:
Avs = Av1.Av2 = α2 * Ro1Ro2/ re1’re2’ = α2 * Ro1Ro2/re’
139
Advantages of Cascode Amplifier
• It has advantages for increasing bandwidth and for
high-voltage amplifier applications.
• A cascode amplifier has a high gain, moderate input
impedance, a high output impedance, and a high
bandwidth.
140

EDC - Unit 4 Final

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Electronic Devices & Circuits

(Unit – IV / BJT & JFET Amplifiers)

Small Signal CE Transistor Amplifier

Swamped CE Transistor Amplifier

Small signal CB Transistor Amplifier

Small Signal CC Transistor Amplifier

Small Signal Common Source JFET

Small Signal Common Drain JFET

Small Signal Common Gate JFET

Cascaded Amplifier (Multi-stage

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