ERT basics

Earth resistivity tomography

L. Baron
12/04/2012
 Introduction
Electrical prospecting implies detection on the surface of effects produced by
electrical current flow in the ground. There is a large variety of techniques
available using electrical methods, we may measure for example:
• the electrical potential;
• the current;
• the magnetic field.

Moreover, the measurements can be made

in a variety of ways. The methods based on
the measure of the parameter "resistivity"
are currently the most developed and the
most diversified.

They were imagined in

1912 by the Schlumberger brothers.
 Resistivity definition
The resistivity of a material is the physical property which determines the aptitude of this
material to be opposed to the passage of the electrical current. The resistivity is the ohmic
resistance of a cylinder of unit section and length.

The usual units are the Ohm for resistances and the meter for the lengths. The resistivity
unit will be thus the Ohm.m. In hydrogeology we generally employ the microSiemens/cm =
10’000 / Ohm.m
 Propagation of electrical current
Electrical current may be propagated in rock sand minerals in three ways. By
the:
• Solid conductibility;
• Surface conduction;
• Electrolytic conduction.

In fact, in most of the rocks, conductibility is electrolytic type. The current is

carried by ions. The electrical resistivity of rocks bearing water is
controlled mainly by the water which they contain.

The resistivity of a rock will depend :

• On the quality of the electrolyte, i.e. of the resistivity of the natural pore
water and consequently the quantity of dissolved salts in the electrolyte;
• On the quantity of electrolyte contained in the unit of rock volume;
• On the mode of electrolyte distribution.
 Quality of the electrolyte
When a salt dissolves in water, it dissociates in positively and negatively
charged ions. Under the effect of an electrical field, ions will move giving
rise to an electrical current. This displacement is obstructed by the
viscosity of the water and for a given ion reach a limited velocity called
mobility of ions.

The conductibility of an electrolyte

depends in fact on concentration
of ions, mobility of the different
ions and degree of dissociation.

A water with a same concentration

in amount of dissolved salts will
have a different resistivity according
to involved ions.
 Salinity
Equivalent salinity is salinity in NaCl which would cause a resistivity equal to that of
water considered. It is possible to obtain coefficients which make it possible to
pass from various salts to the NaCl equivalent. The reverse is not true, the
knowledge of the resistivity of a water only makes it possible to obtain its NaCl
equivalent and not its composition.

The quality of a water in a rock will also depend on:

• the nature of original water;
• the solubility of minerals of the rock;
• the age of the rock.

Generally, the rocks with fine grains and fine pores thus contain water more salty,
more conductive, than the more permeable rocks, where water does not circulate
and take on ions. Thus, the argillaceous moraine contains a water in general much
more conductive than that of the gravels. The oldest rocks present more salt
charged water.
 The temperature effect
The resistivity of an electrolyte also depends on the temperature. An increase
in temperature decreases viscosity. The mobility of ions becomes larger
and dissociation increases, which causes to decrease the resistivity or
conversely to increase conductivity.
 Different waters
From the chemical point of view, we define the dry residue, obtained after
filtering and evaporation, which represents the total of the dissolved
materials. It is expressed in g/liter.

l g/liter = 1000 ppm l mg/liter = 1ppm It is generally admitted that if this dry
waste is higher than 8g/liter( 8000 ppm) water is unsuitable for drinking.
This limit, somewhat arbitrary, depends on the water resources of the
area.
 Porosity
The quantity of water contained in rocks depends upon porosity.

We can define:
• Total porosity
• Effective porosity
 Total porosity
Total porosity is the ratio of the voids volume in the rocks to the total volume
of the rock. It is a dimensionless quantity expressed as a percentage.

We differentiate between primary and secondary porosity. Primary porosity,

created during the deposition of the sediment, is an intergranular type. Its
magnitude depends on the degree of sorting and the shape of the grains.
It does not depend on the grain size. Primary porosity, which is mainly
observed in clastic rocks, generally decreases in time due to the effects of
cementation and compaction.

Secondary porosity includes porosity acquired as a result of dissolution,

fracture porosity and intergranular porosity, due to weathering.
 Effective porosity
Pores, to allow the circulation of fluid should be connected. Effective porosity
can be defined as:

It can be much lower than the total porosity when the pores in a rock are not
connected (pumice stone) or when the size of the pores is such that the
fluids cannot circulate (silts) or even when a part of the water is absorbed
by the minerals in the rock (clay).
 Archie's law: Definition
The electrical resistivity of a rock depends mainly on quantity of water in a unit
volume of rock, and on the quality of this water. These factors are taken into
account in the "Archie law" (Archie 1942) which links the resistivity of the
rock, the porosity, the nature of distribution and the resistivity of the
electrolyte.

a: factor which depends of the lithology and

varies between 0.6 and 2 (a < 1 for rocks
with intergranular porosity and a > 1 for rocks
with fractured porosity)

m: cementation factor, it depends of the

pores shape, of the compaction and varies
between 1,3 for unconsolidated sands to
2,2 for cimented limestone.

Generally the parameter F is known as

Formation Factor
 Archie's law: Saturation
Archie's Law has been established for saturated rocks, but may also take into account
another parameter: the saturation

Archie's Law becomes

n: Its value is about 2 for majority of the formations with normal porosities containing
water between 20 and 100 %.
Sometimes the air can be replaced by oil or gas, which has the same effect on the
resistivities, these three fluids being infinitely resistant. Generally, the
desaturation increases the resistivity.

In certain very particular cases the effect of the desaturation can be opposite. Since,
evaporation charges out of salts the deshydrated zone, which becomes more
conductive than the saturated zone from its great salt concentration, it is the case
for example in some Egypt areas.
 Resistivity and lithology
This technique is based on the measurement from the surface of the
apparent resistivities of the ground. The value of its resistivity which can
varies:
• From 1 to 10 Ohm.m for clay and marl;
• From 10 to 100 Ohm.m for sands and sandstone;
• From 100 to thousands of Ohm.m for limestone and the eruptive rocks.
The correspondence between the resistivity and the geological facies is a
concept of great practical importance. Sometimes, some facies, clays for
example, keep practically the same resistivity on hundreds of kilometers;
in general, the resistivity of a formation is less constant and can change
gradually along a same formation especially in the quaternary deposits.
It should be noted that the resistivities which we measure in prospection are
already averages relating to great volumes of formation in place which
average are greater since the formations are deeper. It results from what
precedes that the measurements of resistivity made on samples are
comparable with those of the formations in place only if we consider the
average value of a great number of samples.
 Anisotropy
Often, the resistivities of the rocks depend on the direction of the current
that crosses them; we say that they are anisotropic.
This anisotropy can be due to the intimate structure of the rock; the
sedimentary formations are generally more resistant in the direction
perpendicular to the bedding plane for example. It is called micro-
anisotropy.
But for great volume, it can also be a question of an apparent anisotropy,
successions of layers alternatively resistant and conductive give a value of
resistivity higher perpendicular to layers, in this case we call it macro-
anisotropy
 Punctual current source
The Ohm 's law enables us to envisage the flow of current in a homogeneous and isotropic medium.
Considering an homogeneous and isotropic formation of resistivity limited by a plane surface on
the side of the air, we send a D.C. current using a specific electrode A. The current flows radially
outward in all direction from the point A and will produce variations of potential in the ground
because of the ohmic resistance of this one. The distribution of the potential can be represented by
half-spherical surfaces centered on A.
In an isotropic homogeneous medium the potential V due to a point source decreases proportionally to
the distance R, and, in addition proportional to intensity I of the current sent and the resistivity of
the medium. If we compare the formation to a half space homogeneous and infinite, the
proportionality factor will be equal to 1/2 ; and by applying the Ohm's law to space separating two
equipotentials between which exists a tension V we obtain:

by integration

with :
dV = potential difference[V]
rho = resistivity of the medium [ohm.m]
I = intensity of the current [A]
r = radius [m]
 Source and sink between A and B
In fact in practice, there are two current
electrodes. The current sent by A (+)
will be collected by B (-), but
according to the principle of
superposition, the potential in a point
M will be the same one if we send
independently a current +I by A or a
current +I by B.
In addition, the laws which govern the
propagation of the electrical
phenomena are linear, which means
that we can algebrically add the
potentials created by various sources.
The total potential in a point will be
Vtot = V1 + V2 for two current poles.
 Dipole injection
The curves represented on the figure above show the
evolution of the potential. The fields V and E are
appreciably uniform in the central third part of AB
while the major part of the fall of potential is
localized in the immediate vicinity of electrodes A
(+) and B (-), that means that almost the totality
of the resistance which offers the formation to
the flow of the current comes from the
immediate vicinity of electrodes A and B.

For example for an electrode of diameter a, 90% of

the resistance of the circuit is located in a sphere
of radius 10a, the remainder of the formation
having a very weak contribution, it will be thus
impossible to know the nature of the
underground by the study of resistance between
two points. The deep layers of the basement
appear only by their influence on the distribution
of the potential to the central third of the
configuration, from where we need to measure
the potential.
 Decreasing of current density
The current density versus depth is
illustrated by the following:
Decreasing of the current (I) with the
depth (z),
for a spacing between the electrodes
of L (from Telford, 1990)
We admit that for a homogeneous ground
30% of the current is between the
surface and a depth z = AB/4, 50% of
the current between the surface and z
= AB/2 and 70% of the current
between the surface and z = AB .
These figures allow to appreciate to what
point the emitted current by two
surface electrodes penetrate in the
underground and can be affected by
the rocks located in-depth.
 Reciprocity
In an unspecified medium, homogeneous or heterogeneous, isotropic or
anisotropic, the potential created in a point M by a current sent in A is
equal to that which we would measure in A if M became source of
emission. This is the reciprocity principle.

In practice, the current is sent between two poles A and B and we measure
the potential difference between the two points M and N, the principles
of superposition and reciprocity learn whereas this potential difference is
the same one as that which we would observe between A and B if the
current were sent between M and N.
 Tangent law
The existence of a relatively conducting or resistant mass in the ground will
disturb the distribution of the flow lines of current and the equipotential
lines.

Tangents of angles formed by the flow lines of current with the normal at the
boundary will be in the inverse ratio of the resistivities.
 Homogeneous model
The geological example used for modeling is a
sandstone level of resistivity 120 ohm.m.

The distribution of the electrical current is done

in a homogeneous way in the formation
between the electrodes A and B.
 Two mediums model

The geological example used for modelling

shows:
• A higher level of clayed sandstone of
resistivity 30 Ohm.m.
• A lower level of sand of resistivity 200
Ohm.
It is noted that the current concentrates in
the higher level of low resistivity
 Two mediums model

The geological example used for modelling

shows:
• a higher level of gravels of resistivity 200
Ohm.m.
• a lower level of sandstone of resistivity
30 Ohm.m.

It is noted that the current concentrates in

the lower level of low resistivity.
 Model of resistant furrow
The geological example used for
modelling uses three layers:
• A higher level of moraine of resistivity
60 Ohm.m.
• A marly-sandstone lower level of
resistivity 30 Ohm.m.
• A furrow filled with gravels of
resistivity 400 Ohm.m
It is noted that the current concentrates
around the more resistant furrow.
 Electrode resistance
These electrodes are generally made of steel stakes. The resistance of
passage of the current is located in the immediate vicinity of the electrode
Let us suppose a perfectly conducting metal electrode, and calculate the
contact resistance of this electrode:

With
L= length to the center of the electrode [m]
r = radius of the electrode [m]
R = resistance [ohm]
rho = resistivity of the formation [ohm.m]

Let us admit for example for the formation a resistivity of 30 ohms.m. The
electrode is inserted of 1 m in the ground and has a radius of 0,02 m.
Under these conditions, we obtain a contact resistance of R = 234 ohms.
 Increasing the current
If the current which passes by these electrodes A and B is too weak we can:
• change the electrode and put one of larger diameter.
• insert it more deeply.
• decrease the resistivity of the soil in the vicinity of the electrode, by
pouring salted water for example

We understood whereas it is necessary to measure the potential towards the

central third of configuration AB in order to be free from the contact
resistance (which does not provide information on the nature of the
underground).
 DC implementation
We can measure the potential difference due to the passage of the current
sent between A and B by using an apparatus called potentiometer.
In some cases, the potential difference becomes too small to be suitably
measured . This difficulty could be resolved in the following way:
• Increasing the sensitivity of the apparatus;
• Increasing the distance between M and N lead to increase MN
corresponds to increase the potential difference.

However, a large MN becomes very

receptive with all kinds of parasitic currents
such as:
•Variable component of the electrical
supplies 50 hertz;
•Component 16 hertz coming from the
railway lines;
•No periodic currents, due to the
interlocking of various machines;
•Currents due to natural sources, telluric,
lightning, etc.
 Apparent resistivity computation
Having measured the potential difference between M and N and the intensity
of the current, we can calculate the resistivity.

If the formation is homogeneous and isotropic, we will obtain the true

resistivity. If on the other hand, the ground is heterogeneous, we will
measure the apparent resistivity, which is a function of the nature of the
ground and the dimension of the array used.

In fact, to a given length of AMNB corresponds a depth of about constant

investigation. Dimensions of the configuration will be thus selected
according to the problem to treat.
 Quadripole Configuration
Whatever the array employed, it is characterized by a certain depth of
investigation, and resolution. The following table gives for some arrays the
depths of investigation and the resolution. It is noticed that resolution and
depth of investigation vary in opposite direction. For the dipole-dipole the
depth of investigation depends on the spacing between the two most
external electrodes.
 2D Electrical tomography
The methods of electrical imagery 2D and 3D were developed to obtain a
model of the ground where the distribution of resistivities varies vertically
and horizontally along the profile. In this case, one supposes that the
resistivity does not change in the direction perpendicular to the profile.

This assumption is reasonable for many elongated geological bodies and in

this case the method could be applied. It will then be necessary to try to
place the profiles perpendicular to the body to be studied, what will also
enable us to determine the true dimensions of this body.
 2D field implementation
A 2D acquisition generally uses a great number of electrodes connected to a
multicore cable and placed along a profile. The resistivitymeter is
connected to a switch box and automatically selects the electrodes used
for the injection of the current and the measurement of the potential.
Each electrode has a single numerical address in the configuration, which
enables it to be identified by the hardware. The sequence of
measurement is generally created in the form of a text file in which is
contained various information such as the type of configuration used.

The multicore cables are connected to switch boxes. A galvanic contact is

ensured with the ground by means of metal stakes (stainless steel). Data
is then stored in the memory of the equipment.
 Acquisition strategy

These are the configurations

more often used in electrical
imaging tomography.

With:
a: MN [m] separation;
N: data level.
 Sensibility
The sensitivity function makes it possible to
evaluate the influence of a unit volume
of the ground on the measured potential
difference. The diagram below shows
the contour pattern for various arrays.

It is immediately noted that the values of

this function differ according to the
configurations. Each one will have their
particular characteristics. This is
especially valid at larger distance from
the electrodes. The differences in
pattern of this function will enable us to
better appreciate the response of
different arrays to different the types of
structures.
 Median depth
From the sensitivity function we can
obtain the median depth of
investigation Ze.
Ze can be regarded as being the depth at
which the upper portion of the earth
located at the top of this limit has the
same influence as the lower section.
This median depth of investigation
depends on the configuration used.
 Apparent resistivity
The figure below presents the electrical tomographies obtained with three
different arrays on a model made up of two identical bodies, infinitely
long, perpendicular to the array and moved away from four times their
width. The patterns generated by these objects strongly differ according
to the array employed. This is the reason for which, it is almost impossible
to interpret correctly a non- inversed tomography. It is just possible to
make some assumptions on the distribution of the apparent resistivities.
 2D strategy guidelines
In the presence of a noisy area and without any preliminary knowledge of the
geometry of the body studied, it is preferable to use a Wenner-
Schlumberger array. This configuration can at the same time be used in
geological research on a large scale, hydrogeology, civil engineering,
archaeology, and for environmental problems.
When we look at vertical structures, and if the area is not too noisy, the
resistivimeter rather sensitive, and there is a good ground contact, use a
Dipole-Dipole array. This configuration can for example be appropriate in
archaeology, mining geophysics and civil engineering.
When it is a question of highlighting horizontal structures, if your area is not
too noisy and you are short on survey time, use a Wenner array.
 3D motivation
Since all geological structures are in 3D in nature, a fully 3D
resistivity survey should give better results. A 3D
acquisition requires more data and thus costs more.
There are however two principal evolutions which currently
tend to make the 3D studies possible. It is the recent
development of the multichannels resistivimeters which
make it possible to take several measurements at the
same time, as well as fast evolution of computer
software making possible the processing (inversion) of a
significant number of data in a reasonable time.
The procedure described for 2D acquisitions remains valid in
3D. The electrodes are on the other hand usually
arranged according to a square or a rectangle. The shape
of the grid can thus vary according to that of the body to
study. The interelectrode is also identical according to
axes X and Y of the array. One uses primarily Pole-pole,
Pole-Dipole and Dipole-Dipole configurations in 3D
imaging. The other arrays have weak data coverage
towards the edges of the grid.
 3D field setup
For small grids (grid lower than 10m by 10m), you can use a Pole-pole
because it presents a great variety of combinations and a good horizontal
coverage (many points in-depth). It is however sensitive to the noise and
has a weak resolution.

Being less sensitive to the noise and presenting a better resolution, the Pole-
dipole can be used for larger grids.

A Dipole-Dipole array must be reserved for larger grids (grid higher than 13m
by 13m) since it has a weak horizontal coverage compared to a Pole-Pole.
A combination of Dipole-Dipole and Pole-Dipole resistivity imaging makes
it possible to improve the quality of the results.
 2D inversion
The values obtained are apparent resistivities. Measurement represents a
value, which integrates the resistivities of a certain volume of the earth.
From these values, we want to find the thicknesses and calculated
resistivities of the various involved bodies. These calculated resistivities
are relatively close to the true resistivities of the bodies.
 2D interpretation
The result of a 2D imaging
survey is a model
presented in the form of
pseudosection of the
underground.
Example of 2D imaging
tomography, rock glacier,
Verbier, Switzerland.
 3D interpretation
• For the 3D imaging, the result is presented in the shape of a 3D block. We
can also present horizontal and vertical cross-sections of this block "depth
slices". The resistivities are in both cases the calculated resistivities.
• Example of 3D electrical tomography on an archeological site
at Orbe.
 Conclusion
The result of the inversion is not unique. This non-unicity has several causes.

The first comes owing to the fact that the data are often spoilt by errors and
that these errors are propagated throughout the inversion process.

The second is that the mathematical formalism does not perfectly describe
the real physical phenomenon. Moreover, when one uses a least squares
minimization criterion, the unicity of the solution will also depends on
possible secondary extrema.