436 33 Powerpoint Slides CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 2 SURVEYING and LEVELLING 1
2ND EDITION [OUP/2012]

CHAPTER 2
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES-
CHAIN SURVEYING

OBJECTIVES
Explain the methods of measurement of distance
Describe the construction of standard chain and tape
Explain the method of ranging and measuring the length of a survey
line
List the different errors that can occur during the measurement of
distance using chain or tape
Apply the necessary corrections to measured distances
Describe the equipment and methods for chain triangulation or
traversing
Explain the methods of laying out chain angles
Describe the method of booking field notes
Explain obstacles to chaining and methods to overcome the same
Explain the methods of plotting chain survey data
Explain the limits of precision in chain surveying

THE METRIC CHAIN AND TAPE
ACCESSORIES FOR CHAIN SURVEY
RANGING A LINE
MEASURING ALONG SLOPE
CORRECTIONS TO MEASUREMENTS
CHAIN TRIANGULATION
PROBLEMS IN CHAINING
OBSTACLES TO CHAINING
CHAIN SURVEY
CROSS STAFF SURVEY

METRIC CHAIN AND TAPE
Metric chains come in lengths of 5 m, 10 m,
20 m and 30m
Older chains were in 100 feet(engineers),66
feet (Gunter’s) and 33 feet (revenue)
Chains have tallies and rings to identify
intermediate values

METRIC CHAINS
BIS standard for chains – is 1492- 1964
Made of 4mm galvanized iron wire
Made of links 200 mm long and connected
by circular or oval rings
End links shorter for providing handles

5M AND 10M CHAINS

20M AND 30 M CHAINS

HANDLES,RINGS AND TALLIES

METRIC TAPE

TAPES
• Cloth tape
• Metallic tape
• Steel tape
• Invar tape
Cloth or linen tapes are not good for field
work as they shrink, tear easily and not
used for survey work.

TAPES

METALLIC TAPES
• Lengths of 2m, 5m, 10 m, 20m, 30m, 50m etc
• Yarn interwoven with metal fibres
• Metal ring to hold at the outer end
• 16 mm wide, marked in cm and m
• Rolled out by pulling and rolled back using
rotating handle
• Commonly used for ordinary survey work

TAPES
Tapes come with a handle to pull out and in
a case with a handle to pull in.

STEEL TAPE
• Steel tapes are made of galvanized steel
or stainless steel
• Lengths from 1 m to 50 m
• Marked in meters, decimeters and
centimeters with end section in millimeters
• Costly but very accurate
• Can be pulled out with the handle and
rolled back automatically
• Used for accurate survey work
INVAR TAPE
• Made of an alloy of steel and nickel
• About 6 mm wide and in lengths of 30m,
50 m and 100m
• Very low thermal coefficient
• Used for very precise work as in base line
measurement
• Should be handled very carefully
CHAPTER 2 SURVEYING and LEVELLING BACK 16

ACCESSORIES
1. Ranging rods
2. Ranging poles
3. Arrows
4. Offset rod
5. Wooden pegs
6. Laths and whites
7. Other equipment for clearing bushes, cleaning
ground

ACCESSORIES

2ND EDITION [OUP/2012] BACK
RANGING
• Ranging required when line is longer than
a chain/tape length
• Placing a line along the shortest distance
between points
• When end stations are inter-visible, direct
ranging can be done
• When end stations not inter-visible,
indirect ranging is done

DIRECT RANGING

INDIRECT RANGING

LINE RANGER
Line ranger is an instrument for ranging
CHAPTER 2 SURVEYING and LEVELLING BACK 22

For plotting, horizontal distances are required
For a measured distance along slope, horizontal
distance can be calculated.
Horizontal length is less than length along slope
For a given horizontal distance, slope distance can
be calculated
The increase in length along slope is called
hypotenusal allowance

METHOD OF STEPPING

• Slope angle measured using clinometer

When slope angle is known

When slope is in gradients

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE
Horizontal distance = L COS θ, Where L is
the slope distance and θ is the slope
angle.
If slope is in gradient, 1:n, then
Horizontal distance = L n/[√(1+n²)]

HYPOTENUSAL ALLOWANCE
Is the additional distance measured along
the slope to give a chain length
horizontally.

HYPOTENUSAL ALLOWANCE
Hypotenusal allowance is given by
L [sec θ – 1], exactly and
L θ²/2, where θ is in radians.
Or
Hypotenusal allowance = √(L² + h²) – L
(exact value) or h²/2L approximately.
CHAPTER 2 SURVEYING and LEVELLING

BACK 30
CORRECTIONS TO
MEASUREMENT
1. Wrong length
2. Slope
3. Alignment
4. Temperature
5. Pull
6. Sag

INCORRECT LENGTH

INCORRECT LENGTH
1. Chain or Tape long or short
Correction = (L’/L) x measured length
Where L is designated length
L’ is actual length of chain/tape
Correction to area = (L’/L)²x measured area
Correction to volume = (L’L)³x measured
volume

SLOPE MEASUREMENT
Correction = h²/2L or = Lθ/2
Where h is the height for length L and
Θ is the slope angle in radians.

INCORRECT ALIGNMENT
Correction = d²/2L
Where d is the deviation over length L

TEMPERATURE
Correction = ± Lα t
Where L = Length
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion
(12 x 10^(-6) for steel tape)
t = difference in temperature.
t = (T – T’), T is the ambient temperature
and T’ is the standardising temperature.

PULL
Correction for pull = ± (P – P’)L/AE
Where P is the pull applied during
measurement
P’ is the pull while standardising the tape
L is the length
A is the area of cross section of tape
E is the Young’s modulus of elasticity (200
GN/m²)

SAG

SAG
Correction for sag = Lw²/24n²P²
L is the length
w is the weight per meter
N is the number of spans
P is the pull applied.

NORMAL TENSION
Tape sags due to self weight; tension
straightens the sag; the two effects are
opposite.
When tension applied is such that it
neutralizes the effect of sag, it is called
normal tension.
Normal tension = 0.204(wl)√(AE)/√(P- Po)

SUMMARY OF
CORRECTIONS
1. Incorrect length = (L’/L) x length (±)
2. Slope = h²/2L or Lθ/2 (negative)
3. Incorrect alignment = d²/2L (negative)
4. Temperature = Lα t (±)
5. Pull = (P – P’)L/AE (±)
6. Sag = Lw²/24n²P² (negative)

LIMITS OF PRECISION
Limits of precision in chain/tape surveys depend upon
many factors like
Nature of terrain, equipment and accessories, time and
resources, weather conditions and importance of the job.
The limit of precision expressed as 1:n. Higher value of n
shows more precision
Chaining on rough terrain – 1:250
Under good conditions – 1:500
Tested chain under excellent conditions = 1:1000
Steel tape under good conditions – 1:2000
Invar tape with accessories – 1:10000

BACK 42
CHAIN TRIANGULATION

CHAIN TRIANGULATION
Main stations – vertices of triangles
Base Line – long line and accurately
measured
Tie line – run between lines to locate details
Check lines – to check accuracy of
measurement

OFFSETS
Offsets are run to locate details

OFFSETS
1. Offsets generally at right angles to chain
line
2. Oblique offsets are also taken
3. Number of offsets depend upon the
detail.
4. Very long offsets are avoided.

NUMBER OF OFFSETS

NUMBER OF OFFSETS

INSTRUMENTS FOR SETTING
RIGHT ANGLES
For taking right-angled offsets, instruments
used are cross staff, optical square, prism
square.
offset
Chain line

CROSS STAFF

OPTICAL SQUARE

OPTICAL SQUARE

OPTICAL SQUARE

INDIAN OPTICAL SQUARE

PRISM SQUARE

Erecting a perpendicular

Erecting a perpendicular
i) By Pythagoras method of 3:4:5
ii) By taking equal distances along the
chain line from the point; Make DE and
EF equal to get point F
iii) Take a convenient distance CD. Make an
arc of length DC to get E. Range along
ED to make ED = DF. CF is the required
perpendicular.
Erecting perpendicular from a point

Erecting perpendicular from outside point
i) Taking convenient length, draw an arc to cut the line at D and E.
Bisect DE to get F. CF is the perpendicular.
ii) Taking a point D on the line measure CD and bisect it at E. With
E as centre, draw an arc of radius ED or EC. F is the foot of the
perpendicular from C.
iii) Take a point D on line and draw an arc with CD as radius. Get
point F. Make EF = CE²/2CD. E is the foot of the perpendicular
from C.
iv) Take two points D and E on the line. Range DC and EC. With
these lines marked, Draw DG and EF perpendicular to EC and
DC. By ranging find the intersection point H. CH is perpendicular
to the chain line.

Setting a parallel line

Setting parallel lines
i) To draw parallel line through C. From C draw CD perpendicular to the
chain line. Taking another point E, draw EG perpendicular to the line.
Make EH = CD. Range CH which is parallel to the line.
ii) Select a point D and range the line and get point E. Draw an arc of
radius DE and find point F on the line. Range the line FD and find G
such that FG = EC. Range CG which is parallel to the chain line.
iii) Take a point D conveniently and bisect CD at E. Range the line FE and
extend it to G such that EG = EF. Range GC which is parallel to the line.
iv) When the point is not accessible, Range a line AC and extend it to get a
point D. Select a point E such that ED is approximately parallel to AB.
Range the line EA Mark a line parallel to EG through C to get F on DE.
Range the line EB and draw a line parallel to it through F. Find point I on
this line on DB. CI is a line parallel to AB.

BACK 61
Chaining not possible, No intervisibility


Chaining not possible, stations intervisible
i) Erect perpendiculars at A and B of equal length using
optical square. CD = AB
ii) Using optical square, set a right angle of sufficient

length to get C. Measure CB. AB = √(BC² - AC²).
Iii) Similar method with right angle at C. AB = √(AC²+

BC²)

iv) Select point C such that A and B are visible. Range AC
and make CD = AC. Range BC and make CE = BC.
Measured ED which is equal to AB.
v) When it is not possible to set a right angle, select point
C. Range CA and make AD = CA.
Cosα = (BC² +CD² -BD²)/(2BCxCD)
AB² = BC² + CA² + 2 CA x BC x cos α.
vi) Select a point C approximately midway of AB and
such that A and B are visible. Measure CA and CB.
CD and CE are made proportional to CA and CB.
Measure DE and calculate AB from similar triangles.
Chaining not possible, intervisible (River)
1. Erect AC perpendicular to AB. Obtain point D on chain
line by making CD perpendicular to CB. Calculate AB =
AC x AC/BD.
2. Erect perpendicular to AB at A to get C at convenient
distance. Bisect AC at D. Range EDB to get E. AB is
then equal to CE.
3. Lay out line CD at right angle to CB, making CA = AD.
Set a right angle at D to get point E on the chain line.
Measure AE which is equal to AB.

4. Select a convenient distance CA. Erect perpendiculars at
A and C and make AC = DF. Extend the line CE to obtain
E in line with DB. AB = AC x DF/ FE.
5. When the chain line crosses the river obliquely, make a
line DAC such that CB and DE are perpendicular to this
line. Point E is so chosen that EAB is in line. AE = AB


Chaining and ranging obstructed

Chaining and ranging obstructed [Ex. Building]

i) Set right angles at A and C and make distances CD
and AE equal and to clear the building. Range DE
and extend it beyond building. Select points B and F
and set right angles to get G and H such that BG and
FH equal to CD. GH is the extension of the chain line.
Confirm the field work by measuring the diagonals of
both the squares made on either side.

II) Select DA along the chain line. Erect perpendicular at A
making AC = AD. Extend the line DC to E. From E, range
a line EF making EF = DE. Make FG = DC. From F and
G, swing arcs equal in length to DC and get point H. HF
is the continuation of the chain line and CG = AB.
iii) Set equilateral triangle CAD. Range CD and extend it to
E. Make EFG an equilateral triangle equal in size to
CDA. Range EG and extend it to H such that CE = EH.
Set an equilateral triangle HBJ equal in size to the
previous triangles. ECH is also an equilateral triangle.
AB = CE – AC – BH.

iv) Line DAE is set approximately at right angles such that
the lines can be ranged beyond the building. Select a
point C on the chain line. CF and CG are set proportional
to CD and CE. Divide FG in the same ratio as AD to AE.
Extend the lines CF and CG in proportion to CD and CE.
Divide the line HI in the same proportion to get J. BJ is in
continuation of the chain line. Distance AB can be
calculated from the triangles.

Distance between points past an
obstacle
To find AB, Take a convenient
point C and measure CA and
CB.
Select point D on CA and find E
as a proportional distance of
CD x CB/CA.
Measure DE. AB can be found as
DE x CD/CA.

CHAIN SURVEY
PROCEDURE
1. Reconnaissance
2. Equipment – chain/tape, arrows, ranging
rods, ranging poles, offset rod, pegs etc
3. Marking stations
4. Triangulation
5. Locating details

FIELD BOOK

CROSS STAFF SURVEY

CROSS STAFF SURVEY
BOOKING READINGS
The reading of cross staff survey are booked by chainages
along the central line and marking the offsets to points
on the left and right sides.
The distances to the points are noted along with the point
name.
CHAPTER 2 SURVEYING and LEVELLING END 77


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CHAPTER 2 SURVEYING and LEVELLING 1

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Chaining not possible, No intervisibility

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ii) Using optical square, set a right angle of sufficient