COURSE OUTLINE

1. ROCK PROPERTIES

2. RESERVOIR FLUID PROPERTIES

3. MULTIPHASE FLOW
3.1 Relative Permeability
3.2 Capillary Forces Formation Damage
3.3 Multiphase Flow Laws
3.4 Immiscible Displacement
3.4.1 Fractional Flow
3.4.2 Segregated Flow

4. RESERVOIR EVALUATION
5. RESERVOIR SIMULATION
6. ENHANCED RECOVERY TECHNIQUES
 Common Formation Damage Mechanisms
Formation Damage

Mechanical Mechanisms Chemical Mechanisms

Fines Migration Rock-Fluid Interaction

Solids Invasion Wettability Alteration

Phase Trapping Fluid-Fluid Interaction

Perforation Induced Thermal Mechanisms

Dissolution
Geomechanics Induced

Biological Mechanisms Mineral Transformation

Polymer Secretion Corrosion Souring Wettability Changes

After Bennion (2002)

 Formation Damage
Formation damage (definitions from http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com)
1. n. [Drilling] ID: 1399
Alteration of the far-field or virgin characteristics of a producing formation, usually by exposure to drilling fluids.
The water or solid particles in the drilling fluids, or both, tend to decrease the pore volume and effective
permeability of the producible formation in the near-wellbore region. At least two mechanisms are at work. First,
solid particles from the drilling fluid physically plug or bridge across flowpaths in the porous formation. Second,
when water contacts certain clay minerals in the formation, the clay typically swells, increasing in volume and
decreasing the pore volume. Third, chemical reactions between the drilling fluid and the formation rock and fluids
can precipitate solids or semisolids that plug pore spaces. One approach to minimize formation damage is to use
drill-in or completion fluids that are specially formulated to avoid damage to the formation when drilling pay zones,
rather than ordinary drilling fluids.
2. n. [Drilling Fluids] ID: 1935
A reduction in the natural capability of a reservoir to produce its fluids, such as a decrease in porosity or
permeability, or both. Damage can occur near the wellbore face (easier to repair) or deep into the rock (harder to
repair). Damage is caused by several mechanisms: (1) physical plugging of pores by mud solids, (2) alteration of
reservoir rock wettability, (3) precipitation of insoluble materials in pore spaces, (4) clay swelling in pore spaces,
(5) migration of fines into pore throats, (6) introduction of an immobile phase, and (7) emulsion formation and
blockage. Damage can occur when sensitive formations are exposed to drilling fluids.
3. n. [Well Completions] ID: 2663
A general term to describe the reduction in permeability to the near-wellbore area of a reservoir formation. There
are several recognized damage mechanisms, such as the invasion of incompatible fluids swelling the formation
clays, or fine solids from dirty fluids plugging the formation matrix. Because formation damage can significantly
affect the productivity of any well, adequate precautions should be exercised to avoid damage during all phases in
the life of a well.
Solids Invasion –
When Filter-Cake
is no Longer a
Good Thing

Drilling mud invasion and

filter-cake formation

(Ding et al., 2002)

Solids Invasion –
When Filter-Cake
is no Longer a
Good Thing

Drilling mud invasion and

filter-cake formation
Water-based Phase Trapping Effects

Low-permeability gas reservoir (Bennion, 2002)

Effect of Wettability on
Fines Migration

Water wet case

(Bennion, 2002)
Polymer Adsorption Effects on Low and High Perm Rocks

(Bennion, 2002)
If flow rate is too high, fines are mobilized.
These fines plug pores, reducing permeability.

Depending on water chemistry, reactions may occur  precipitation of solids (scale).

Source: Formation Damage and Control Poster, Core Laboratories, Calgary

Depending on water chemistry, reactions may occur  precipitation of solids (scale).

Depending on water chemistry, clay swelling may occur  reduction in pore volume.

Source: Formation Damage and Control Poster, Core Laboratories, Calgary

 Formation Damage - Can be Worse for Horizontal Wells

Damage zone around horizontal well is larger

at the heel, and less symmetrical about the
borehole axis
Damage zone around vertical
well is relatively uniform

(Bennion, 2002)
Comparison of Formation Damage Effects in Open-Hole
vs. Cased Hole Completions

(Bennion, 2002)
References
Bennion, D.B., “An Overview of Formation Damage Mechanisms Causing a Reduction
in the Productivity and Injectivity of Oil and Gas Producing Formations”, Journal of
Canadian Petroleum Technology, Vol. 41, No. 11, November 2002, pp. 29-36.
(TN860 .J862)

Ding, Y., Longeron, D., Renard, G. and Audibert, A., “Modeling Near-Wellbore Damage
and Natural Cleanup of Water-Based Mud”, Journal of Petroleum Technology,
November 2002, pp.37-38. (Nat. Sci. TN860 .J86)
COURSE OUTLINE

1. ROCK PROPERTIES

2. RESERVOIR FLUID PROPERTIES

3. MULTIPHASE FLOW
3.1 Relative Permeability
3.2 Capillary Forces
3.3 Multiphase Flow Laws
3.4 Immiscible Displacement
3.4.1 Fractional Flow
3.4.2 Segregated Flow

4. RESERVOIR EVALUATION
5. RESERVOIR SIMULATION
6. ENHANCED RECOVERY TECHNIQUES
VISCOUS FINGERING

The mechanics of displacing one fluid with another are relatively simple
if the displaced fluid (oil) has a tendency to flow faster than the
displacing fluid (water).
Under these circumstances there is no tendency for the displaced fluid
to be overtaken by the displacing fluid and the fluid-fluid (oil-water)
interface is stable.
If the displacing fluid has a tendency to move faster than the displaced
fluid, the fluid-fluid interface is unstable. Tongues of displacing fluid
propagate at the interface. This process is called viscous fingering.
MOBILITY

The mechanics of displacement of one fluid with another are controlled

by differences in the ratio of effective permeability and viscosity (k /m).

grad p w  w  z 
kw
Recall: qw  
mw

grad p o  o  z 
ko
qo  
mo

The specific discharge for each phase depends on k /m . This is called

the fluid mobility (): k
w  w
mw
ko
o 
mo

Mobility controls the relative ease with which fluids can flow through a
porous medium.
MOBILITY RATIO

The mobility ratio is expressed as:

M = w / o [remember w = f(Sw); o = f(So)]

In ideal displacement, there is a sharp transition from residual oil

saturation (Soi) to maximum oil saturation (1 - Swi) at the oil-water
interface.

Ahead of the interface, oil alone is flowing at the end-point mobility

o' = ko'/mo. Behind the interface, water alone is flowing at the end-point
mobility w' = kw'/mw.

Ideal displacement is the most favourable condition for production but

only occurs if the end-point mobility ratio is less than or equal to unity.

M' = w' / o'

IDEAL DISPLACEMENT

If the mobility ratio is less than or equal to one, oil can flow at a rate
greater than or equal to that of water and is pushed ahead by the
water bank in a piston-like fashion.
The moveable oil volume (MOV) is given by:
MOV = (1 - Soi - Swi)·PV
where PV is the pore volume. For a waterflood under ideal
displacement conditions, the volume of oil recovered is exactly equal
to the volume of water injected. Once water breaks through, no more
oil will be produced.

1 - Soi

Swi
NON-IDEAL DISPLACEMENT (1)

Under most circumstances, water is found to be more mobile than oil. As

a result, tongues of water bypass the oil leading to much less favourable
saturation profiles.

Some distance ahead of the water front, oil alone flows at the end-point
mobility o’ = ko’/mo.

At some point nearer the water front there is a sharp change in water
saturation called the shock front.

Behind the shock front there is a transition zone where both water and oil
flow.

At the end of the transition zone, water alone is flowing at the end-point
mobility w’ = kw’/mw.

When the shock front reaches the production well there is a sharp
increase in watercut. This event is called breakthrough.
NON-IDEAL DISPLACEMENT (2)

In contrast to the ideal displacement case, at breakthrough, only a fraction

of the MOV has been recovered.
Additional water injection is required to recover the moveable oil. Several
(5 or 6) MOV’s of water may be needed to displace a single MOV of oil.

1 - Soi

t1
t2

Swi water
transition zone oil zone
zone

The diagram shows two saturation profiles with the shock front to the
right. Before breakthrough, there is a water, transition and an oil zone. At
breakthrough, the shaded area represents moveable oil that remains
between the injector and producer.
AREAL SWEEP EFFICIENCY

When oil is produced from patterns of injectors and producers, the flow is
such that only part of the area is swept at breakthrough.
The expansion of the waterbank is initially radial from the injector but
eventually is focused at the producer.

The pattern is illustrated for a direct line drive at a mobility ratio of unity.
At breakthough, a considerable area of the reservoir is unswept.
MOBILITY RATIO AND SWEEP EFFICIENCY

Mobility ratio (M) has a strong influence on areal sweep efficiency (ASE)
at breakthrough. For five-spot patterns, areal sweep efficiency at
breakthrough depends on the mobility ratio.

M < 0.2, ASE > 95%

M = 1.0, ASE = 67%
M =10, ASE = 50%.
Low M

High M
VERTICAL SWEEP EFFICIENCY

Vertical sweep efficiency for a waterflood is the fraction of a formation in

a vertical plane that the water will contact.
Vertical sweep efficiency depends primarily on the degree of reservoir
stratification.
Natural fractures and high permeability lenses or layers that extend from
injector to producer can adversely affect vertical sweep efficiency by
providing “short-circuits” for the displacing fluid leading to premature
breakthrough.

Unswept

Unswept

Unswept
WATERFLOOD

Oil recovery can be determined at any time in the life of a waterflood if four
factors are known:

 Oil initially in-place (OIIP). [Sometimes OOIP (oil originally in place)]

o function of the oil saturation and floodable pore volume.
o highly dependent on net pay discriminators such as permeability
and porosity cutoffs.
 Areal sweep efficiency (EA) .
o primarily depends on the relative flow properties of oil and water,
the pattern and pressure distribution between injection and
production wells.
 Vertical sweep efficiency (EV).
o depends primarily on the degree of reservoir stratification.
 Displacement sweep efficiency (ED).
o fraction of oil which water will displace in the invaded zone.
WATERFLOOD RECOVERY

If the oil initially in place in the floodable pore volume at start of water
injection (OIIP or N) is determined, the waterflood recovery Np is given
by:

Np = N x EA x EV x ED

The recovery factor Np/N can be relatively small if the geologic

characteristics of the reservoir are poorly understood leading to low EA
and EV.

ED is largely determined by the expected residual saturation.

For example, for EA=0.6, EV=0.6 and ED=0.6 the recovery factor is
only 0.216 or less than 22% of the floodable pore volume. If
EA=EV=ED=0.5 then the recovery factor falls to 0.125.