Summary - Introduction

• Transistors and diodes are the most widely used electronic

devices
• These devices are based on semiconductor material
• The electrical conductivity of semiconductors are due to
electrons (e-) and holes (h+)
• In electronics we have two types of signals
analog – continuously varying voltage
digital – have only two voltage levels HIGH (1) and LOW (0)
• In analog systems there are two types of signals that we will
encounter:
small-signals and large-signals.
1
 EE2202: Introduction to Electronic Engineering 2018

• We are mainly concerned with materials known as Semiconductors

(s-c) and devices made of s-c

• Properties of s-c lie between that of

insulators and conductors.

2
• The Periodic Table is a table of the chemical elements, ordered
by their atomic number (number of protons), electron
configurations, and recurring chemical properties.
• This ordering shows periodic trends, such as elements with
similar behaviour in the same column.
• In general, within one row (period) the elements are metals on
the left, and non-metals on the right.
• The semiconductors (ex: Si, Ge) fall in
Group IV (of the Mendeleev Periodic Table) or
Group 14 (of the Standard Periodic Table )

• We will study s-c mainly in terms of Si, the most commonly

used s-c

3
Periodic Table after Mendeleev (1869)

4
The Common or Standard Form Periodic Table

Group → 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

↓ Period

1 2
1
H He

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 *
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 **
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
* Lanthanides
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

** Actinides
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

This is an 18-column periodic table layout, which has come to be referred to as the common or standard form, on account of its
popularity. It is also sometimes referred to as the long form,

5
• Si Atom: 2-D representation.
• Nuc – Nucleus: Contains 14 Protons (+charge) and
14 Neutrons (no charge)
• and has 14 electrons (-ve charge) in orbits (shells)
around the Nuc
• There are 4 electrons in outer orbit or shell (valence
shell) called valence electrons.

Nuc

6
• We draw the structure of the Si atom as a 2D diagram
for convenience of visualization
• the orbiting electrons travel around the nucleus in 3-
dimensional orbits.

7
8
 Allowed orbits

Nuc
+4

(a) (b)

• the maximum number Ne of electrons that a shell number n can

contain is
Ne = 2n2
• So inner-most orbit can have 2 electrons maximum,
the next outer orbit can have 8 electrons maximum and the next
outer orbit can have 18 electrons (maximum).
• For simple representation (b) we include Nuc and inner orbits in
one central orbit and show only the outer orbit.
9
• Total energy En (kinetic & potential) possessed by an electron in
the nth orbit of an atom with atomic number Z is

En= -13.6 (n Z/π)2 in units of electron volts (eV)

where n is an integer =1,2,3…..

Z the atomic number is given by the number of

protons or electrons in the atom and where

1 electron volt = 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 Joules (J)

and is normally the units for atomic or subatomic energies.

10
• From the equation En= -13.6 (n Z/π)2 we get the energies in the
orbits as E1, E2,E3 etc.
• Then an energy level diagram can be plotted

Energy (eV)

E6 Note that E1,E2,E3….. are negative

E5
E4
E3 n=3

E2 n=2

E1 n=1

11
• Rigidity of solids arises from the atoms held together by
inter-atomic forces called inter-atomic bonds.
• There are 3 types of bonds
1) Ionic - formed between 2 opposite charged ions
2) Covalent - formed by sharing electrons between 2 atoms
3) Metallic - formed between metal atoms

• In s-c the bonds are Covalent bonds

12
• Solid Si is formed by the 4 valence electrons sharing electrons
with 4 of its neighbours

Covalent Bond
+4 Each atom contribute 4 valence
electrons so the atom is called a
+4 +4 +4 tetravalent atom.
Shown the 2-D representation of
+4
the structure
Note: the valence shell is not full

When Si atoms come together to form a solid they exert

influence on one another and as a result the allowed energies
‘split’ into closely spaced levels which are continuous

13
 n=4
Conduction Band (CB)
Eg
eV n=3 Valence Band (VB)

n=2

(a) n=1 (b)

Fig 4

The outer two bands are named the Valence band and the Conduction band.
*Conduction properties of solids are governed by valence band electrons being
excited to the conduction band by the input of energy (thermal, electrical) into the
solid.
Eg is the energy gap between the valence and conduction bands and called the
forbidden energy gap because electrons can’t occupy the enery levels within Eg.
At absolute zero temperature (0K or -273C) : VB is “completely” full and CB is
completely empty
14
 n=4 Conduction Band (CB)
Conduction Band (CB)
Eg Eg
eV n=3 Valence Band (VB) Valence Band (VB)

(c)
n=2

(a) n=1 (b)

Fig 4

So to study the conduction properties of solids we simplify the energy diagram as

Fig 4 (c).
We can classify solids in terms of the energy gap Eg
For insulators Eg is large,
For s-c Eg is small and
For conductors the valence and conduction bands overlap.

15
Intrinsic s-c
is a s-c in its extremely pure form.
• Si is the most widely used (and Ge to a lesser extent).
Generation of electrons (e-) and holes (h+)
e- and h+ are the mechanism by which s-c conduct electricity.
At absolute zero 0K (-273C) the s-c will have the ideal crystal
structure.
All valence e- are held tightly by their parent atoms and through
covalent bonds to other atoms.
Since e- are not free to move there is no conduction of electricity
and the s-c behaves as an insulator.

16
 Crystal Classes

All crystalline materials must, by definition fit in

one of these arrangements 17
• Now let the temperature of the s-c be increased slowly to room
temperature (27C or 300K).
• Due to the input of thermal energy some of the covalent bonds are
broken.
• e- that were part of a covalent bond can get dislodged or break
away from the bond.
• They are free to move anywhere within the crystal.
The energy required to break the
+4
covalent bond is the band gap energy
Eg
+4 +4
+4
+4 At room temperature
Eg = 1.1 eV for Si
(0.72 eV for Ge).
Dislodged
hole +4
electron
+4

The vacancy of an incomplete covalent bond left behind by

the dislodged e- is called a hole (h+). 18
•A hole (h+) also serves as a carrier of electricity like the free e-

• A combination of such an e- and h+ is known as a e-/ h+ pair

• When temperature is increased a large number of e- and h+ are

generated.
•Since the e- and h+ are generated in pairs,
Free electron concentration n (no. of e- /m3) =
concentration of holes p (no of h+/m3) = ni
For an intrinsic s-c; n = p = ni

19
The energy band diagram for an Intrinsic s-c at room temperature is described by a

eV
CB a) Partially filled CB

Ef
b) Partially filled VB
Eg c) Narrow energy gap Eg ~ 1 eV
VB

At 0K no e- in CB – insulator.
At room temperature width of the gap is reduced and some e- jump into the CB
and s-c shows some conductivity.
The Fermi Level (Ef) is a thermodynamically determined energy indicator that
gives the probability of e- occupation in the energy band diagram.
Since e- and h+ are created as pairs, for a intrinsic s-c Ef lies in the middle of Eg.

20
Mechanism of h+ contribution to conductivity
Dislodged e- generates a h+.
An e- from a neighbouring covalent bond fills this hole leaving a h+ where it has
left.
This is the mechanism for h+ movement.
h+ move in opposite direction to e- and therefore h+ move in the direction of
conventional current flow. (Remember e- flow in the opposite direction to
conventional current flow).

+4

+4 +4

+4 +4
Fig 7.
21
Generation and Recombination of Carriers

• Conduction Properties of s-c depend on the number of valence e-.

• When sufficient energy (thermal or electrical) is given to valence
e- they break away from their parent atoms and move to the
conduction band and take part in the conduction through the
crystal.
• Such e- are called conduction band e-.
• These electrons leave behind h+ in the valence band.

e- Conduction Band

eV
Eg

h+ Valence Band
22
Generation and Recombination of Carriers:

• The e- and h+ generated are called free charge carriers and are
free to move within the crystal.

• The number of free charge carriers determine the property of s-c.

For a pure s-c: number of h+ = number of e-
• Thermal agitation will continue to produce new h+/e- pairs

• Other h+/e- pairs disappear due to recombination.

• In recombination the free e- fall into empty covalent bonds.

Conduction Band

eV
Eg

Valence Band 23
Generation and Recombination of Carriers:

• Recombination also results in the release of energy equivalent to

the energy gap Eg as a photon of light or thermal energy.
• On average h+ (or e- in CB) exist for a very short time before
recombination.
• The time of existence is known as the mean life time and
normally in the range 1 to 1000 μsec (1 μsec = 10-6 sec)

Conduction Band

eV Photon Energy = Eg = hν
Eg Or thermal energy
Valence Band

24
• Intrinsic s-c has very small conductivity at room temperature
• so of no practical significance.

• To make the intrinsic s-c useful there characteristics have to be

changed.

• This is done by adding certain amounts of desired impurities.

• The resulting s-c is called an extrinsic s-c.

25
Extrinsic s-c
• The process of adding impurity atoms to the intrinsic s-c is called
doping.

• The impurities are added at the rate of 1 part to 106 to 1010

of s-c atoms.

• The impurities are so small they do not have any influence on the
crystal structure.

• The impurities enter the crystal by substituting for Si atoms.

• The purpose of adding impurities is to increase the number of free e-

and h+ in the s-c.
26
Extrinsic s-c

• The practical process of adding impurities is called

ion implantation
Two types of impurity atoms can be added to the intrinsic s-c:
1) atoms containing 5 valence e-
[pentavalent atoms from Group 15 (S periodic table)]

2) atoms containing 3 valence e-

[trivalent atoms from Group 13 (S periodic table)]

The resulting extrinsic s-c is called

1) N– type s-c and 2) P- type s-c.

27
The Common or Standard Form Periodic Table

Group → 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

↓ Period

1 2
1
H He

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 *
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 **
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
* Lanthanides
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

** Actinides
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

This is an 18-column periodic table layout, which has come to be referred to as the common or standard form, on account of its
popularity. It is also sometimes referred to as the long form,

28
N- Type s-c:
• Examples of Group 15 impurities are P, Sb, As, Bi (have 5 valence e-).
• These elements donate excess e- carriers and are called donors or N-type
impurities.
• Out of the 5 valence e-, 4 form covalent bonds.
• The 5th e- is loosely bound.
• If detached this e- will be available for conduction.
• The energy required to detach this e- is about 0.05eV for Si

+4

+4
+4 +5 +4

Sb +4
5th electron
+4
Loosely bound

29
N- Type s-c:
• Addition of a pentavalent atom gives away or donates the 5th e-.

• After the donation the impurity atom becomes a +ve charged ion and is
known as a donor ion.

• This ion is bound by 4 covalent bonds and cannot move within the crystal
lattice.
• As a result, these ions do not contribute to the conduction of current.
• Thus for N-type s-c the current flow is due to e- and h+,
but a major part due to e-
.
Thus in N-type s-c
e- are known as majority carriers and
h+ as minority carriers.

30
• In a N- type s-c there are more e- in the CB than in the VB.
• The Fermi Level in a N-type s-c therefore lies closer to the CB

CB

Ef
eV
Eg

VB

31
P- Type s-c:
• Examples of Group 13 impurities are Ga, In, Al, B (have 3 valence e-).
• These elements make available +ve charge carriers because they create h+
which can accept e- and are called acceptor or P-type impurities.
• The 3 valence e- form 3 covalent bonds. The 4th is incomplete.
• The vacancy that exists in a covalent bond is a h+
• It acquires the 4th e- from a neighbouring atom to complete the covalent
bond.
• After doing this the In atom becomes a –ve charged immovable ion. The
energy involved in this capture is about 0.05eV for Si

+4

+4
+4 +3 +4

In +4
+4 hole 32
P- Type s-c:

• For P-type s-c the current flow is due to e- and h+, but a major part due to
h+.
Thus for P-type s-c
h+ are known as majority carriers and
e- as minority carriers.

• In a P- type s-c there are more h+ in the VB

• The Fermi Level in a P-type s-c therefore lies closer to the VB

CB

eV
Eg Ef
VB

33
Conduction in a Metal

• Electric current density in a metal ( which is due to the

movement of e-) is given by

J= σ E = q n µ E
where
σ is conductivity and E the applied electric field.

σ=qnµ
q = charge of an e-,
n = no of e- per unit vol (e- concentration),
µ = mobility of e-,

34
 Intrinsic s-c:
Current density due only to movement of e- :
Jn= q n µn E;
µn= mobility of e-; n= e- concentration

Current density due only to movement of h+:

Jp= q p µp E;
µp= mobility of h+; p= h+ concentration;

Total current density in an Intrinsic s-c

J = Jn + Jp = qnµnE + qpµpE
= σE
where σ = q(nµn+pµp)
35
For Intrinic s-c: p = n = ni
σi = qni(µn+µp)

This component is called the Drift current

For N-type: n >> p; σ = qnµn

For P-type: p >> n; σ = qpµp

36
Mass Action Law: Addition of N-type impurities decrease the number of h+
and addition of P-type impurities decrease the number of e- below a level
in intrinsic s-c.
Under thermal equilibrium n p = ni2 where ni is intrinsic concentration.

Charge density in N and P type s-c:

Let ND= concentration of donor atoms and
NA= concentration of acceptor atoms.
Total no of +ve charges in a s-c = ND+p;
Total no of –ve charges in a s-c = NA+n;
But since s-c is electrically neutral ND+ p = NA+ n
N-type: NA=0 ; n>>p; ND= n ; p = ni2/n = ni2/ND;
P-type: ND=0 ; p>>n; NA= p ; n = ni2/p = ni2/NA.

37
 Diffusion Current in a s-c:
Consider a bar of P-type s-c having a non-uniform concentration of h+.
• Let the h+ in left side of YY’ be larger than the right side.
• Thus there exists a concentration gradient dp/dX whose value is given
by;
dp/dX= -(po-px)/X
where po and px are concentration of h+ to the left and on YY’
respectively, x is distance of YY’ from origin plane and
–ve sign indicates h+ concentration that decreases with increasing x.

h+

Y’ X
38
• Because of dp/dX the h+ from the left of YY’ will diffuse
towards the right side.
• This produces a current called the diffusion current.

• Magnitude of diffusion current per unit area

(called diffusion density) is given by
Jp = -qDp dp/dX where
q is charge of h+ in coulombs and
Dp is the diffusion constant for h+ in m2/sec.
Y

h+

Y’ X
39
Similarly for N-type; Jn = -qDn dn/dX.

Sometimes it is possible for an electric field and the

concentration gradient to exist simultaneously in a s-c.

Then

Total Current in s-c: Sum of drift current and diffusion current

For P-type: Jp = qpµpE – qDp dp/dX;

For N-type: Jn = qnµnE – qDn dn/dX

40
PN Junction:

• P and N type s-c are not useful in themselves.

• But when they are combined together to form a PN junction
, this forms a very useful device called a diode.

Note:
• the P and the N type s-c are not physically joined together.
• There is a continuous boundary between them.
• This is achieved with a single Si bar by doping the two
sides of the bar with Group 13 and Group 15 impurities.

41
Forming a PN junction – Start with intrinsic Si Group 14

e- h+
42
 Add Group 13 and 15 impurities – ion implantation

13 15

Acceptor ions Donor ions

- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

P type N type
majority carriers h+ majority carriers e-
minority carriers e- minority carriers h+ 43
As soon as the junction is formed – Fermi levels line up

- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

Energy Band Diagram

P-Type N-Type

Eg CB
Ef

VB 44
As soon as the junction is formed

- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +
P N
- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

More h+ in P side than N side More e- in N side than P side

h+ Diffuse e- Diffuse

45
As soon as the junction is formed

- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +
P N
- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

h+ near boundary on P e- near boundary on N

side recombine with side recombine with
diffused e- from N side diffused h+ from P side

46
As soon as the junction is formed

- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +
P N
- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

Depletion Region

Results in a charge depleted (free) region near the boundary

47
As soon as the junction is formed

- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +
P N
- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

Depletion Region

Further diffusion of majority carriers are stopped

48
As soon as the junction is formed

- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +
P N
- - - - - - + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

VB = 0.7V
Distance

49
This is the unbiased PN junction.

• At room temp, due to thermal energy a few h+ and e- will acquire

enough energy to cross the junction.
• The energy required is qVB
• This is the majority carrier current.
• Diffusion of minority carriers does not take place but the potential
barrier helps this process.
• This is the minority carrier current.
• The s-c is electrically neutral.
majority carrier current = minority carrier current,
and point in opposite directions.
• Therefore there is no net flow of current in an unbiased PN junction

50
Biasing the PN junction:

Biasing the PN junction involves connecting an external

voltage supply to the junction.

By applying the external voltage we control the width

of the depletion region and thereby control the
resistance of the PN junction and the current passing
through it.

Two ways to connect an external voltage supply

P N P N

+ - - +
V V

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

51
Forward Bias:
• +ve terminal of the voltage supply is connected to P and –ve terminal to N.
• h+ are repelled by +ve terminal, e- are repelled by negative terminal.
• Both move towards the junction.

• They acquire energy from the voltage supply and enter the depletion region
and recreates the ionic structure.

• This reduces the width of the depletion region and the height VB of the
potential barrier.

FB P N

+ -
V

52
Forward Bias:

- - - - - - + + + + + +

P - - - - - - + + + + + + N
+ - - - - - - + + + + + + -

- - - - - - + + + + + +

V
For V < 0.7

VB
Distance

53
Forward Bias: For V ≥ 0.7

- - - - - - + + + + + +

P - - - - - - + + + + + + N
+ - - - - - - + + + + + + -

- - - - - - + + + + + +

Distance

54
Forward Bias:

• more majority carriers cross the junction and a large current will flow
through the junction.
• *Current in the external circuit is due to e- movement only, while in the s-c
will be due to e- and h+.
• Current in external circuit will flow as long as V is present.
• Current increases with increase in applied voltage over VB and is the
order of mA.
• V-I Characteristic
I
mA

Forward Bias Region

Steep curve ≈ VB

Knee
VB V
Volts

55
Reverse Bias:

• -ve terminal of the voltage supply is connected to P and +ve terminal to N.

• h+ in P are attracted to –ve terminal and e- to +ve terminal.
• majority carriers move away from junction.
• This widens the depletion region and increase the potential barrier and
makes it very difficult for majority carriers to cross the junction.

RB
P N

- +
V

56
Reverse Bias:

- - - - - - + + + + + +

P - - - - - - + + + + + + N
- - - - - - - + + + + + + +

- - - - - - + + + + + +

VB

Distance

57
Reverse Bias:
• No current flows due to majority carriers and the junction offers high
resistance.
• However, potential barrier helps minority carriers to sweep across junction.
• So there is a minority carrier current which is very small.
• This current is only dependent on temp and independent of applied voltage.
• It is called the Reverse Saturation current Is and is of the order of nA for
Si.
I

Is
V
Volt
s
Reverse
Bias
Region nA (Si)

58
Reverse Breakdown:

• If the reverse bias voltage is increased to a large value, at a certain voltage

the current through the junction increase rapidly.

• The voltage at which this sudden increase occurs is known as

Breakdown Voltage VBR.

• The sudden increase occurs due to the breakdown in crystal structure and
when the applied voltage is removed the crystal structure will return to
normal unless permanently damaged.

59
Two processes cause junction breakdown,

1) Zener Breakdown

• Occurs in junctions which are heavily doped,

ie: narrow depletion region.

• When reverse voltage is increased, a strong electric field

is set up across the junction and this causes the covalent
bonds to break and a large number of minority carriers
are generated and a large current will flow through the
junction

60
2) Avalanche Breakdown

• Occurs when the accelerated free e- acquire enough

energy to ionize a lattice (Si) atom by bombardment.
• The additional free e- created are accelerated by the
reverse field causing more and more ionization.
• The multiplication of the number of free carriers causes
the reverse current to increase rapidly.

61
 V-I Characteristics of a PN junction (Diode)

• There are three distinct regions giving the conductivity properties

expressed as V-I Characteristics where V is voltage and I is current,
of a PN junction diode. I
mA

Forward Bias
Region
Steep curve ≈ VB
VBR Is Kne
VB e V
Reverse Volt
Breakdown s
Region Reverse
Bias
Region nA (Si)

(Note the different scaling of the current axis)

62
 Diode Current Equation
• An equation that describe the forward and reverse characteristics of a
semiconductor diode.
Let I = Forward (or reverse) diode current,
Is = Reverse Saturation Current,
V = External voltage, +ve for Forward Bias, -ve for Reverse Bias
η = constant = 2 for low values of diode current (Si)
= 1 for for higher values
VT = Volt equivalent of temperature = T/11600
where T is absolute temperature in K.
At room temp (300 K), VT = 26mV.

The current equation for the forward biased diode can be approximated
by
I = Is {exp[V/(ηVT)] – 1}
• The current equation for the reverse biased diode can be obtained by
changing the sign of V,
I = Is {exp[-V/(ηVT)] – 1}
63
 Circuit Symbol for a diode

• The diode has two terminals Anode (P type) and

Cathode (N type). The circuit symbol for the diode is
shown in the figure.
Arrow shows direction of current flow for forward bias.

A K
P N

A K

64
ΔVF

ac & DC Resistance of a diode

• Diode has a definite value of resistance when forward
biased.
• This is known as DC or static forward resistance RF and
is given by the ratio of DC voltage across the diode to
the dc current flowing through it,
RF = VF/IF.
• The forward biased V-I characteristics is non-linear so
the value RF depends on the exact location of the point
in the curve. I

IF

V
VF

65
ΔVF

• Resistance offered by a diode to an ac signal is called

dynamic or ac resistance and given by
rac= ΔVF/ΔIF
• There is also the bulk resistance rB of the diode,
r B = r P + rN
• where rP = ohmic resistance of P type semiconductor
and rN for the N type.

ΔIF
V
ΔVF

66
 Junction Resistance

• Value for a forward biased PN junction depend

upon value of forward DC current IF and given by
rj = 0.026/IF Ω
rj is a variable resistance.

• The ac junction resistance

rac = rj + rB

67
 Power and Current Ratings

• The maximum value of power which a diode can

dissipate without failure is called the power rating.
• Power dissipation should not exceed the power rating.
• Power dissipation for a forward biased diode is
PD=VF IF where
VF = forward voltage drop and IF= forward current.
• Similarly for reverse biased diode
PD=VR IR
• Manufacturers often list the maximum current which a
device can handle called current rating, because this is
easier to measure than the power rating.

68
 Temperature Effects

• The diode equations

I = Is {exp[V/(ηVT)] – 1}
show that the forward and reverse currents are
dependent on temperature.

• The saturation current Is is also very sensitive to

temperature and doubles for every 10 °C rise in
temperature.

69
Diode Terminal Identification and Types of Diodes

• As a diode has an anode A and cathode K

manufacturers identify the terminals in various ways as
shown in the figure.

A K A K A K

70
 The Load Line

• Small-signal diode analysis can be performed graphically

using the diode V-I characteristics.
• Small-signal means changes in V and I are small.
• For the analysis we connect the diode across a DC and
ac source

e= + R
i(t)
A sinωt ~
- v(t)

71
• To analyze the circuit we use the
Principle of Superposition.
• This principle says that a circuit containing two voltage
sources can be analyzed by determining the current in
the circuit due to each source acting alone and then
adding the results to find the current when both sources
are present.

e= + e=
R
A sinωt ~
i(t) R I A sinωt +~ R i
- v(t) -
V
= +
E E

72
 + e=
e= R
i(t) R A sinωt + R i
A sinωt ~ I
~
- v(t) -
V
= +
E E

• Using Kirchoff’s Law for the DC circuit,

E = IR + V or I = -(1/R)V + E/R
• Let V and I be variables and E and R constants.
• The equation is of the form y = mx + b where m = -(1/R)
is the slope and b = E/R is the intercept on the y axis.
• We first plot this line on a V-I graph as shown below.

I
E/R

E V 73
• Then we superimpose the diode forward bias curve on
the same graph
• The intersection point Q is called the quiescent point or
operating point of the diode.
• VF is the diode voltage and IF the diode current.
• For V > VB the voltage drop across the diode is
VB = 0.7 V for Si.
For analysis purposes the diode can be replaced with a
battery of 0.7V and with opposite polarity to E.
I
Diode FB R I
E/R
0.7V

Q E
IF
E V
VF
0.7V 74
• In the ac equivalent circuit we replace the diode with the
diode ac resistance rac which has a voltage drop VD
across it,
rac = rj + rB
Let rB = 0 for convenience then
rac ~ rj = 0.026 / IF
IF is given by the DC equivalent circuit as IF = (E – 0.7)/R
for V>VB

e=
A sinωt + R R IF
~ i(t)
0.7V
-
rac
E

75
 e=
A sinωt + R i
~
-
rac
VD

• Apply Ohm’s Law to the ac equivalent circuit

i = A sin(ωt) /(R+rac) and
VD = A sin(ωt) rac /(R+rac)

• Combining the results of DC and ac:

i(t) = (E-0.7) /R + A sin(ωt) /(R+rac)
VD(t) = 0.7 + A sin(ωt) rac /(R+rac).

76
 e= + R
i(t)
A sinωt ~
- v(t)

• The total DC and ac source voltage is

v(t) = E + A sin(ωt)
• This has a maximum value of vmax = E+A and a
minimum value of vmin = E-A
• For the single DC source we got a single load line.
• For the time varying signal v(t) we think of a series
(infinite) of load lines one for each of all the values that
v(t) has between vmin and vmax..

77
• So we can draw the load line extremes in the V-I graph
and superimpose the diode forward bias curve
• As total voltage varies between vmin and vmax, the
intersection of all the load lines with the V–I
characteristic curve generate all the current voltage
combinations that are in the circuit.
• So we can visualize circuit operation as a point moving
continuously along the V-I diode curve between the
I
points A and B
(E+A)/R
E/R

(E-A)/R
A
Q
B

Vmin= E Vmax V
E-A =E+A

78
 Example

• A Si diode is connected Forward Bias in series with a DC

voltage source of 6 V, an AC voltage source 2 sin ωt and
a resistor of 270 Ω. The bulk resistance of the diode is 0.1
Ω.
Find the total current and voltage across the diode.

79
 Applications of Diodes – DC Power Supply

• One of the most common uses of a diode in large-

signal operation is as a rectifier.
• Large-signal means changes in V and I are large.
• A rectifier is the first stage in designing a constant DC
power supply.
• A DC power supply is a device that gives a constant
DC voltage output for a sinusoidal voltage input.
• The sinusoidal input is normally taken from the mains
supply of 230 V, 50 Hz.
* The 230 V designated here is the rms value of
voltage.

80
230V 50 Hz mains supply

81
 Rectifier
• A rectifier is a device that allow current to flow through in
one direction only.

A simple rectifier circuit that contains an ac source e(t) and load R

e(t) vR(t)
e(t)+~ i(t)
- vR(t)
R
t t

Input Rectifier Output

82
• During the +ve half cycle the diode is forward biased
and current will flow.
• During each –ve half cycle the diode is reverse biased
and no current flows (except for Is).
• Net effect is the conversion of an ac voltage into a
pulsating DC voltage, the fundamental step in the
construction of a DC power supply.
• The single diode is called a half wave rectifier.
83
84
 Elementary DC Power Supplies

• Most practical circuits require a DC voltage source that

produces and maintains a constant voltage.
• This is done by converting the pulsating half sine waves
obtained with a rectifier to a steady DC level.
vR(t) vR(t)

t t

•This is achieved by filtering.

•The pulsating half sine waves (like all periodic waveforms)
can be regarded as waveforms that have both a DC
component and ac components.
•The purpose of filtering these waveforms for a DC power
supply is to reject all the ac components.
85
• The simplest kind of filter that will do this is a capacitor.
• Capacitor has reactance Xc= 1/(2πfC)
where f is frequency in Hz and C the capacitance in F
• Thus Xc α 1/f.
• If we connect a capacitor in parallel to the diode then at
high frequencies the rectified signal will see a low
impedance path to ground and will not appear in the
output.
• In practice a power supply will supply a DC current to a
load.
• Then the circuit for the elementary DC power supply is
vL(t) Rectified and filtered
e(t) Waveform

e(t) + i(t)
~
- vL(t)
C RL
t t

Input Output

86
87
 Zener Diode
• The Zener diode is a PN junction device and operates in the
reverse-breakdown region only
• The breakdown voltage Vz of a Zener diode is set by carefully
controlling the doping level during manufacture.
I
Vz
V
K IZK

Regulation
region

M IZM

• When reverse voltage VR is increased the reverse current (called

Zener current Iz) remain very small up to the ‘knee’ point K.
•At K the breakdown process begins.
•From K, the breakdown voltage Vz remains essentially constant
with increasing Iz.
88
•This ability of a diode is called the regulating ability.
 I
Vz
V
K IZK

Regulation
region

M IZM

• Two important points must be noted

1) There is a minimum value of Iz called breakdown current IZK which
must be maintained in order to keep the diode in the breakdown (or
regulation region). When current is reduced below IZK the voltage
changes rapidly and the regulation is lost.
2) there is a maximum value of zener current IZM above which the
diode may be damaged. The value IZM is given by the maximum
power dissipation of the zener diode and will be supplied by the
manufacturer.
IZM = PZM / Vz, where
PZM = power rating for zener, Vz = breakdown voltage.

89
• The circuit symbol and a practical equivalent circuit for a
Zener diode are

Circuit symbol A K

Practical equivalent
rz
Circuit Vz
Vz’

90
 Zener diode Voltage Regulator
Rs
Is Iz IL
Vs RL
VL
Vz

• For operation Vs > Vz and this ensures operation is in the

breakdown region of the Zener.
• The input current Is = (Vs-Vz)/Rs,
where Vs is DC input voltage and Vz is Zener Voltage.
• Zener acts as a constant voltage source of Vz

91
 Zener diode Voltage Regulator
Rs
Is Iz IL
Vs RL
VL
Vz

• A practical Zener has a finite value of rz (Zener resistance).

• Therefore there is a voltage drop across rz
• Voltage across terminals of load VL= Vz + Iz rz
• If rz is small VL = Vz
• Applying Kirchoff’s Law the current through the load
resistor is
IL= Is – Iz where IL = VL / RL
• Rs is connected in series with Zener to limit the current in
the circuit.
92
 Rs
Operation of Zener Regulator Is Iz IL
Vs RL
VL
Vz

1) Regulation with varying input voltage

(a) when Vs increase, Is increases.

This increases the current through Zener without affecting IL.
Increase in Is will increase the voltage drop across Rs
thereby keeping the load voltage VL constant.

(b) If Vs is decreased Is is also decreased.

Current through Zener is decreased and voltage drop
across Rs is reduced.
Therefore VL and IL remains constant.
93
 Rs
Operation of Zener Regulator Is Iz IL
Vs RL
VL
Vz

2) Regulation with varying load resistance – variation of RL

changes IL so changing VL.
(a) when RL decreases, IL increases.
This causes Zener current Iz to decrease.
As a result, Is and voltage drop across Rs remain constant.
Therefore VL is also kept constant.
(b) If RL increase, IL decrease and Iz increase.
This keeps Is and voltage drop across Rs constant.
Therefore VL remains constant

94
95
96