Chap - 8 Principles of Digital Data Transmission

Modern Digital and Analog
Communication Systems
B.P. Lathi & Zhi Ding
Adapted by: Hari M. Gupta
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. 1

CHAPTER 8
PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL
DATA TRANSMISSION

Outline
Digital Communication Systems
Line Coding
Pulse Shaping
Scrambling
Digital Receivers and Regenerative Repeaters
Eye Diagrams
PAM: M-ary Baseband Signaling For Higher Data Rate
Digital Carrier Systems
M-ary Digital Carrier Modulation

Introduction
• Throughout most of the twentieth century, a significant percentage of
communication systems was in analog form. However, by the end of the
1990s, the digital format began to dominate most applications.
• We are now witnessing a proliferation of digital technologies such as digital
multimedia communication, digitized gaming, paperless digitized banking,
and business transactions (e-commerce, e-business).
• Given the dominating importance of digital communication systems in our
lives today, it is never too early to study the basic principles and various
aspects of digital data transmission.
• Now we will discuss the problems of transmitting digital data over a channel.

Digital Communication Systems
• Digital transmission is the transmission of digital pulses between two or more
points. The block diagram for digital communication systems is given below.
Fundamental building blocks of digital communication systems

Source
• The input to a digital system takes the form of a sequence of digits.
• The input could be the output from a data set, a computer, or a

digitized audio signal (PCM, DM, or LPC), digital facsimile or HDTV, or
telemetry data, and so on.
• A source can be used for either binary (communication schemes

using only two symbols) or M-ary (communication schemes using M
symbols).
Line Coder
• The digital output of a source encoder is converted (or coded) into electrical
pulses (waveforms) for the purpose of transmission over the channel. This
process is called line coding or transmission coding.
• There are many possible ways of assigning waveforms (pulses) to the digital
data.
1. On-off (RZ)
• In case of binary signals (2 symbols),
for example, conceptually the simplest
line code is on-off, where a 1 is
transmitted by a pulse p(t) and a 0 is
transmitted by no pulse (zero signal).
On-off (RZ) line coding

Line Coder
2. Polar (RZ)
• In the polar line coding 1 is transmitted by a pulse
p(t) and 0 is transmitted by a pulse −p(t).
• The polar scheme is the most power-efficient code
because it requires the least power for a given noise
immunity (error probability).
3. Bipolar (RZ)
• It is also known as pseudoternary or alternate Polar (RZ) line coding
mark inversion (AMI), where 0 is encoded by no
pulse and 1 is encoded by a pulse p(t) or −p(t)
depending on whether the previous 1 is encoded by
−p(t) or p(t). In short, pulses representing
consecutive 1s alternate in sign.
• This code has the advantage that if one single error
is made in the detecting of pulses, the received
pulse sequence will violate the bipolar rule and the
error can be detected (although not corrected)
immediately. Bipolar (RZ) line coding
Line Coder
4. On-off (NRZ)
• NRZ stands for non return to zero.
• This coding is similar to on-off (RZ) coding
except for the fact that the pulse does not
return back to zero. On-off (NRZ) line coding
5. Polar (NRZ)
• This coding is similar to polar (RZ) coding
except for the fact that the pulse does not
return back to zero.
Polar (NRZ) line coding
Multiplexer
• The capacity of a physical channel (e.g., coaxial cable, optic fiber) for
transmitting data is much larger than the data rate of individual sources.
To utilize this capacity effectively, we combine several sources by means
of a digital multiplexer.
• Digital multiplexing can be achieved through frequency division or time

division.
• Through it a physical channel is normally shared by several messages

simultaneously.

Regenerative Repeater
• Regenerative repeaters are used at regularly spaced intervals along a
digital transmission line to detect the incoming digital signal and
regenerate new “clean” pulses for further transmission along the line.
• This process periodically eliminates, and thereby combats, accumulation

of noise and signal distortion along the transmission path.
• The ability of such regenerative repeaters to effectively eliminate noise

and signal distortion effects is one of the biggest advantages of digital
communication systems over their analog counterparts.

Line Coding
Digital data can be transmitted by various transmission or line codes. Each line code has its
advantages and disadvantages. Among other desirable properties, a line code should have the
following properties:
• Transmission bandwidth—it should be as small as possible.
• Power efficiency—for a given bandwidth and a specified detection error rate, the
transmitted power should be as low as possible.
• Error detection and correction capability—it is desirable to detect, and preferably correct,
detection errors.
• Favorable power spectral density—it is desirable to have zero power spectral density (PSD)
at f = 0 (dc) because ac coupling and transformers are often used at the repeaters.
• Adequate timing content—it should be possible to extract timing or clock information from
the signal.
• Transparency—it should be possible to correctly transmit a digital signal regardless of the
pattern of 1s and 0s. We saw earlier that a long string of 0s could cause problems in timing
extraction for the on-off and bipolar cases.

PSD of Various Line Codes (Polar codes)

PSD of Various Line Codes (Polar codes)

PSD of a Generalized Line Codes

PSD of a Generalized Line Codes

PSD of Various Line Codes
• The PSD Sx(f) is the Fourier transform of Rx(τ).
• The input x(t) to the filter with impulse response h(t) = p(t) results in the output y(t),
If p(t) ⇐⇒ P(f ), the transfer function of the filter is H(f ) = P(f ), then
• Thus, the PSD of a line code is fully characterized by its Rn and the pulse-shaping
selection P(f ).
Polar Signaling
• In polar signaling, 1 is transmitted by a pulse p(t) and 0 is represented by −p(t).
In this case, ak is equally likely to be 1 or −1, and a2k is always 1. Hence,
• The polar signal has most of its power concentrated

in lower frequencies.
• Theoretically, the spectrum becomes very small as
frequency increases but never becomes totally zero
above a certain frequency.
• To define a meaningful measure of bandwidth, we
consider its first non-dc null frequency to be its
essential bandwidth.
PSD of a polar signal
Constructing a DC Null in PSD by Pulse Shaping
• Because Sy(f ), the PSD of a line code contains a factor |P(f )|2, we can force
the PSD to have a dc null by selecting a pulse p(t) such that P(f ) is zero at dc
(f = 0). Because
• We have,
• Hence, if the area under p(t) is made zero, P(0) is zero, Split-phase (Manchester or
and we have a dc null in the PSD. twinned-binary) signal
• When we use this pulse with polar line coding, the resulting signal is known as
Manchester code, or split-phase (also called twinned-binary), signal.

On-Off Signaling
• In on-off signaling, a 1 is transmitted by a pulse p(t) and a 0 is transmitted by
no pulse. Hence, a pulse strength ak is equally likely to be 1 or 0.
• Out of N pulses in the interval of T seconds, ak is 1 for N/2 pulses and is 0 for
the remaining N/2 pulses on the average.
• Hence,
• The desired PSD of the on-off waveform y(t) is
PSD of an on-off signal

Bipolar Signaling
• The signaling scheme used in PCM for telephone networks is called bipolar
(pseudoternary or alternate mark inverted).
• A 0 is transmitted by no pulse, and a 1 is transmitted by a pulse p(t) or −p(t),
depending on whether the previous 1 was transmitted by −p(t) or p(t).
• Bipolar signaling actually uses three symbols
[p(t), 0, and −p(t)], and, hence, it is in reality
ternary rather than binary signaling. Here,
PSD of bipolar, polar, and split-phase signals

normalized for equal powers. Half-width rectangular
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. pulses are used. 21
High-Density Bipolar (HDB) Signaling
• In this scheme the problem of nontransparency in bipolar signaling is
eliminated by adding pulses when the number of consecutive 0s
exceeds N.
• Such a modified coding is designated as high-density bipolar coding

(HDBN), where N can take on any value 1, 2, 3, . . . .
• The most important of the HDB codes is HDB3 format, which has been
adopted as an international standard.

Binary with N Zero Substitution (BNZS) Signaling
• A class of line codes similar to HDBN is the binary with N zero substitution, or
BNZS code, where if N zeros occur in succession, they are replaced, by one of
the two special sequences containing some 1s to increase timing content.
HDB3 signal PSD of HDB3 signal

Pulse Shaping
• The PSD Sy(f ) of a digital signal y(t) can be controlled by a choice of line code
or by the pulse shape P(f ).
• We have already discussed how the PSD is controlled by a line code.
• Now, we will examine how Sy(f ) is influenced by the pulse shape p(t), and we
learn how to shape a pulse p(t) to achieve a desired Sy(f ).
• The PSD Sy(f ) is strongly and directly influenced by the pulse shape p(t)
because Sy(f ) contains the term |P(f )|2. Thus, in comparison to the nature of
the line code, the pulse shape is a more direct and potent factor in terms of
shaping the PSD Sy(f ).

Intersymbol Interferences and Effect
• A spectral distortion tends to spread the pulse (dispersion). Spreading of a
pulse beyond its allotted time interval Tb will cause it to interfere with
neighboring pulses. This is known as intersymbol interference or ISI.
• ISI is not noise. It is caused by nonideal channels that are not distortionless
over the entire signal bandwidth.
• ISI, as a manifestation of channel distortion, can cause errors in pulse
detection if it is large enough.
• To eliminate ISI, Nyquist proposed three different criteria for pulse shaping,
where the pulses are allowed to overlap. Yet, they are shaped to cause zero (or
controlled) interference with all the other pulses at the decision-making
instants.
• Thus, by limiting the noninterference requirement only at the decision-making
instants, we eliminate the need for the pulse to be totally nonoverlapping.

Nyquist’s First Criterion for Zero ISI
• In the first method, Nyquist achieves zero ISI by
choosing a pulse shape that has a nonzero
amplitude at its center (say t = 0) and zero
amplitudes at t = ±nTb (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), where Tb
is the separation between successive transmitted
pulses. Thus,
• The Fourier transform of this pulse is
which has a bandwidth Rb/2 Hz.

Minimum bandwidth pulse that
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved.
satisfies Nyquist’s first criterion and 26
its spectrum
Timing Error in using sinc pulse

• Frequency Domain

Raised Cosine Spectrum

Controlled ISI or Partial Response Signaling
• The Nyquist criterion pulse requires a bandwidth somewhat larger than the
theoretical minimum. If we wish to further reduce the pulse bandwidth, we must
find a way to widen the pulse p(t) (the wider the pulse, the narrower the
bandwidth).
• Widening the pulse may result in interference (ISI) with the neighboring pulses.
Consider a pulse specified by
• A pulse satisfying above (second) criterion is also

known as the duobinary pulse.
• This leads to a known and controlled ISI from the
kth pulse to the very next transmitted pulse. We
use polar signaling by means of this pulse.
• The received signal is sampled at t = nTb, and the
pulse p(t) has zero value at all n except for n = 0
and 1, where its value is 1. Communication using controlled ISI or
Nyquist second criterion pulses
Controlled ISI or Partial Response Signaling
• The table shows a transmitted bit sequence, the sample values of the received
signal x(t) (assuming no errors caused by channel noise), and the detector
decision.
• The pulse p(t) goes to zero at t = −Tb and 2Tb, resulting in the pulse width (of
the primary lobe) 50% higher than that of the first criterion pulse. This pulse
broadening in the time domain leads to reduction of its bandwidth. This is the
second criterion proposed by Nyquist. This scheme of controlled ISI is also
known as correlative or partial-response scheme.
Duobinary Signaling
• For binary message bit Ik = 0, or 1, the
polar symbols are simply ak = 2Ik − 1.
• Under the controlled ISI, the samples of
the transmission signal y(t) are
• A simple detector of duobinary signaling

is to first detect all the bits Ik corresponding Transmitter diagram for the controlled ISI method of
to bk = ±2. duobinary signaling
• The remaining {bk} are zero-valued samples that imply transition: that is, the current
digit is 1 and the previous digit is 0, or vice versa. This means the digit detection
must be based on the previous digit.
• To mitigate this error propagation problem, we apply a effective mechanism known
as differential coding.

Duobinary Signaling

Duobinary Signaling

Example of a Duobinary Pulse
• If we restrict the pulse bandwidth to Rb/2, then only
the following pulse p(t) meets the requirement for
the duobinary pulse:
• The Fourier transform P(f) of the pulse p(t) is given The minimum bandwidth pulse that satisfies
by the duobinary pulse criterion
• This pulse transmits binary data at a rate of Rb bit/s

and has the theoretical minimum bandwidth Rb/2
Hz.
Spectrrum of above minimum bandwidth
pulse that satisfies the duobinary pulse
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. criterion 35
Duobinary Signaling and Differential Encoding
36
Pulse Relationship between Zero-ISI, Duobinary, and
Modified Duobinary
• We can establish the simple relationship between a pulse pa(t) satisfying the first
Nyquist criterion (zero ISI) and a duobinary pulse pb(t) (with controlled ISI).
• Modified partial-response signaling is often adopted to force a null at dc. One
notable example is the so-called modified duobinary signaling that requires.
• A similar argument indicates that pc(t) can be generated from any pulse pa(t)
satisfying the first Nyquist criterion via
• Equivalently, in the frequency domain, the duobinary pulse is
which uses sin (2πfTb) to force a null at dc to comply with the physical channel
constraint.

Pulse Generation
• A pulse p(t) satisfying a Nyquist criterion can be generated as the unit impulse
response of a filter with transfer function P(f ).
• The pulse p(t) to be generated is sampled with a
sufficiently small sampling interval Ts.
• When a narrow rectangular pulse with the width
Ts, the sampling interval, is applied at the input of
the transversal filter, the output will be a staircase
approximation of p(t).
• This output, when passed through a lowpass filter, is smoothed out. The
approximation can be improved by reducing the pulse sampling interval Ts.

Pulse Generation
Pulse generation by transversal filter

Scrambling
• Scrambler tends to make the data more random by
removing long strings of 1s or 0s. Scrambling can be helpful
in timing extraction by removing long strings of 0s in binary
data.
• Scramblers are primarily used for preventing unauthorized
access to the data, and they are optimized for that
purpose. Such optimization may actually result in Scrambler
generation of a long string of zeros in the data.
• If S is the input sequence to the scrambler, then
• Regeneration of the input sequence S from the received

sequence T, is readily implemented by the descrambler
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. Descrambler 40

Digital Receivers and Regenerative Repeaters
• Basically, a receiver or a regenerative repeater performs three functions:
(1) Reshaping incoming pulses by means of an equalizer
(2) Extracting the timing information required to sample incoming pulses at optimum
instants
(3) Making symbol detection decisions based on the pulse samples.
• A complete repeater may also include provision for separation of dc power from ac
signals. This is normally accomplished by transformer-coupling the signals and
bypassing the dc around the transformers to the power supply circuitry.
The repeater consists of a

receiver plus a regenerator

Equalizers
• Theoretically, an equalizer should have a frequency characteristic that is the
inverse of that of the transmission medium to restore the critical frequency
components and eliminate pulse dispersion. Unfortunately, this also enhances
the received channel noise by boosting its components at these critical
frequencies. This undesirable phenomenon is known as noise amplification.
• For digital signals, however, complete equalization is really not necessary,
because a detector only needs to make relatively simple decisions—such as
whether the pulse is positive or negative. Therefore, considerable pulse
dispersion can be tolerated.
• Noise increase resulting from the equalizer also increases the detection error
probability. For this reason, design of an optimum equalizer involves an
inevitable compromise between reducing ISI and reducing the channel noise.

Zero-Forcing Equalizer
Zero-forcing equalizer analysis


• We need to eliminate or minimize interference with neighboring pulses at their respective
sampling instants only.
• The equalizer output pulses satisfy the Nyquist or the controlled ISI criterion. The time delay
T between successive taps is chosen to be Tb, the interval between pulses.
• Because the pulse amplitude decays rapidly, interference beyond the Nth pulse is not
significant for N > 2, in general. Thus, we get a set of 2N + 1 simultaneous equations for 2N +
1 variables. These 2N + 1 equations can be rewritten in the matrix form known as the
Toeplitz matrix.
45
Minimum Mean Square Error Method
• An alternative approach is to minimize the mean square difference between
the equalizer output response po[k] and the desired zero ISI response. This is
known as the minimum mean square error (MMSE) method for designing
transversal filter equalizers.
• The MMSE method does not try to force the pulse samples to zero at 2N
points. Instead, we minimize the squared errors averaged over a set of output
samples.
• The solution to this minimization problem can be better represented in matrix
form as
where Pr† represents the Moore–Penrose pseudo-inverse of the nonsquare
matrix Pr of size (2K+1)×(2N+1). The MMSE design often leads to a more robust
equalizer for the reduction of ISI.

Timing Extraction
• The received digital signal needs to be sampled at precise instants. This requires a
clock signal at the receiver in synchronism with the clock signal at the transmitter
(symbol or bit synchronization), delayed by the channel response. Three general
methods of synchronization exist:
1. Derivation from a primary or a secondary standard (e.g., transmitter and receiver
slaved to a master timing source) — Because of its high cost, this method is
suitable for large volumes of data and high-speed communication systems.
2. Transmitting a separate synchronizing signal (pilot clock) —suitable when the
available capacity is large in comparison to the data rate and when additional
transmission power can be spared.
3. Self-synchronization, where the timing information is extracted from the received
signal itself — a very efficient method of timing extraction or clock recovery
because the timing is derived from the received message signal itself.

Timing Extraction
• The sinusoidal output of the
oscillator (timing extractor)
is passed through a phase
shifter that adjusts the
phase of the timing signal so
that the timing pulses occur
at the maximum points. This
method is used to recover
the clock at each of the
regenerators in a PCM
system.
The complete timing extractor and time pulse generator for a polar
case
Detection Error
• The signal received at the detector consists of the equalized pulse train plus a
random channel noise. The noise can cause error in pulse detection.
• The detector’s decision of whether to declare 1 or 0 could be made readily
from the pulse sample, except that the noise value n is random, meaning that
its exact value is unpredictable.
• The meaningful performance comparison is the likelihood of detection error,
or the detection error probability.
Error probability in threshold detection

49
Eye Diagrams: An Important Tool
• The eye diagram is a practical engineering tool which is often applied by
engineers on received signals because it makes possible the visual examination
of severity of the ISI, the accuracy of timing extraction, the noise immunity,
and other important factors.
• We need only a basic oscilloscope to generate the eye diagram.
• Given a baseband signal at the channel output
it can be applied to the vertical input of the oscilloscope. The time base of the
scope is triggered at the same rate 1/Tb as that of the incoming pulses, and it
yields a sweep lasting exactly Tb, the interval of one transmitted data symbol ak.
• The oscilloscope shows the superposition of many traces of length Tb from the
channel output y(t).

Transmission of a signal by polar NRZ pulses; its eye diagram
Channel output using the same polar line code and a different (RZ) pulse shape; its eye diagram
NRZ polar signal becomes waveform after passing through the nonideal channel; its eye diagram
51
Eye Diagrams

• Maximum opening point
The eye opening amount at the sampling and decision
instant indicates that amount of noise the detector can
tolerate without making an error. The quantity is known
as the noise margin.
• Sensitivity to timing jitter
The width of the eye indicates the time interval over
which correct decision can still be made, and it is
desirable to have an eye with the maximum horizontal
opening.
• Level-crossing (timing) jitter
Typically, practical receivers extract timing information
about the pulse rate and the sampling clock from the Reading an eye diagram
(zero) level crossing of the received signal waveform.
• Figure shows a practical eye diagram.
• By observing the maximum eye opening, we can see that this baseband signal
has zero ISI, confirming the basic feature of the raised-cosine pulse.
• On the other hand, because Nyquist’s first criterion places no requirement on
the zero crossing of the pulse, the eye diagram indicates that timing jitter
would be likely.
Eye diagrams of a polar signaling system using a raised cosine pulse with roll-off factor 0.5: (a) over 2 symbol periods 2T b
with a time shift T b/2; (b) without time shift
PAM: M-ary Baseband Signaling For Higher Data Rate
• Regardless of which line code is used, binary baseband modulations have one
thing in common: they all transmit one bit of information over the interval of
Tb second, or at the bit rate of 1/Tb bit per second.
• For each symbol transmission within the time interval of Tb to carry more bits,
there must be more than two symbols to choose from. By increasing the
number of symbols to M, we ensure that the information transmitted by each
symbol will also increase with M.
• In general, the information IM transmitted by an M-ary symbol is
• We can increase the rate of information transmission by increasing M. This

special M-ary signaling is known as the pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
because the data information is conveyed by the varying pulse amplitude.
PAM: M-ary Baseband Signaling For Higher Data Rate
• As M increases, the transmitted power also increases. This is because to have
the same noise immunity, the minimum separation between pulse amplitudes
should be comparable to that of binary pulses. Therefore, pulse amplitudes
increase with M.
• Thus, to increase the rate of communication by a factor of log2 M, the power
required increases as M2.
4-Ary PAM signaling: (a) four RZ symbols; (b) baseband transmission; (c) the 4-ary RZ eye diagram.
56
Pulse Shaping and Eye Diagrams in PAM
• In this case, we can use the Nyquist criterion
pulses because these pulses have zero ISI at the
sample points, and, therefore, their amplitudes
can be correctly detected by sampling at the
pulse centers. We can also use the controlled ISI
for M-ary signaling.
• Eye diagrams can also be generated for M-ary
PAM by using the same method used for binary
modulations.
• Because of multilevel signaling, the eye diagram
should have M levels at the optimum sampling
Eye diagrams of a 4-ary PAM signaling system
instants even when ISI is zero. using a raised-cosine pulse with roll-off factor
0.5: (a) over two symbol periods 2Tb with
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. time offset Tb/2; (b) without time offset 57
Applications
N-BASE-TX
IEEE 802.3u
IEEE 802.3 has deprecated IEEE 802.3-2008 standard

Digital Carrier Systems
• Baseband signals cannot be transmitted over a radio link or satellites because
this would necessitate impractically large antennas to efficiently radiate the
low-frequency spectrum of the signal. Hence, for these applications, the signal
spectrum must be shifted to a high-frequency range.
• The spectrum of a signal can be shifted to a higher frequency by applying the

baseband digital signal to modulate a high-frequency sinusoid (carrier).
• In transmitting and receiving digital carrier signals, we need a modulator and

demodulator to transmit and receive data. The two devices, modulator and
demodulator, are usually packaged in one unit called a modem for two-way
(duplex) communications.
Basic Binary Carrier Modulations
• There are two basic forms of carrier modulation—
amplitude modulation and angle modulation.
• In amplitude modulation, the carrier amplitude is varied
in proportion to the modulating signal (i.e., the
baseband signal). The carrier cos ωct
• The on-off baseband signal m(t) (the modulating signal)
can be written as
• The line code ak = 0, 1 is on-off. When the carrier The modulating signal m(t)
amplitude is varied in proportion to m(t), we can write
the carrier modulated signal as
• As modulated signal is still an on-off signal. This

modulation scheme of transmitting binary data is ASK: the modulated signal m(t) cos ωct
known as on-off keying (OOK) or amplitude shift
keying (ASK). © Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. 60
Basic Binary Carrier Modulations
• If p(t) is the basic pulse, we are transmitting 1 by a
pulse p(t) cos ωct and 0 by −p(t) cos ωct = p(t) cos
(ωct+π). Hence, the two pulses are π radians apart in
phase.
• The information resides in the phase or the sign of the
pulse. For this reason this scheme is known as phase
shift keying (PSK). Similar to ASK, the PSK modulated
carrier signal has the same form
with the difference that the line code is polar ak = ±1.

• When data are transmitted by varying the frequency,
we have the case of frequency shift keying (FSK).

PSD of Digital Carrier Modulation
• To determine the PSD of the ASK, PSK, and FSK
signals, it would be helpful for us to first find
the relationship between the PSD of m(t) and
the PSD of the modulated signal
PSD of ASK
• PSD of ϕ(t) is
PSD of PSK
where is the Fourier transform of the

truncated signal.
PSD of FSK
Connections between Analog and Digital Carrier Modulations
• There is a natural and clear connection between ASK and AM because the
message information is directly reflected in the varying amplitude of the
modulated signals. Because of its nonnegative amplitude, ASK is essentially an
AM signal with modulation index μ = 1.
• There is a similar connection between FSK and FM. FSK is simply an FM signal
with only limited number of instantaneous frequencies.
• Also, the digital PSK modulation is closely connected with the analog QAM (or
DSB-SC AM) signal.

Demodulation
Due to connections, demodulation of digital-modulated signals is similar to that
of analog-modulated signals.
ASK Detection
• Just like AM, ASK can be demodulated both coherently (for synchronous
detection) or noncoherently (for envelope detection).
• The coherent detector requires more elaborate equipment and has superior
performance, especially when the signal power (hence SNR) is low.
• For higher SNR, the envelope detector performs almost as well as the coherent
detector. Hence, coherent detection is not often used for ASK because it will
defeat its very purpose (the simplicity of detection).

FSK Detection
• FSK can be detected coherently or
noncoherently as the binary FSK can be viewed
as two interleaved ASK signals with carrier
frequencies ωc0 and ωc1 , respectively.
• In noncoherent detection, the incoming signal is
applied to a pair of filters tuned to ωc0 and ωc1 ,
respectively. Each filter is followed by an
envelope detector.
• FSK can also be detected coherently by
generating two references of frequencies ωc0
and ωc1 , for the two demodulators, to
demodulate the signal received and then
comparing the outputs of the two demodulators.
(a) Noncoherent detection of FSK.
(b) Coherent detection of FSK.
PSK Detection
• In binary PSK, a 1 is transmitted by a pulse A cos ωct and a 0 is transmitted by a
pulse −A cos ωct.
• The information in PSK signals therefore resides in the carrier phase.
• Just as in DSB-SC, these signals cannot be demodulated via envelope detection
because the envelope stays constant for both 1 and 0
Coherent binary PSK detector (similar to a DSB-SC demodulator

Differential PSK
• PSK signals may be demodulated
noncoherently by means of an ingenious
method known as differential PSK, or DPSK.
• In one differential code, a 0 is encoded by the
same pulse used to encode the previous data
Differential encoding
bit (no transition), and a 1 is encoded by the
negative of the pulse used to encode the
previous data bit (transition).
• In terms of demodulation complexity, ASK,
FSK, and DPSK can all be noncoherently Encoded signal
detected without a synchronous carrier at
the receiver. On the other hand, PSK must be
coherently detected.
© Oxford University Press 2018. All rights reserved. Differential PSK receiver 67
M-ary Digital Carrier Modulation
• The binary digital carrier modulations of ASK, FSK, and PSK all transmit one bit
of information over the interval of Tb second, or at the bit rate of 1/Tb bit/s.
• Similar to digital baseband transmission, higher bit rate transmission can be

achieved either by reducing Tb or by applying M-ary signaling; the first option
requires more bandwidth; the second requires more power.
• In most communication systems, bandwidth is strictly limited. Thus, to

conserve bandwidth, an effective way to increase transmission data rate is to
generalize binary modulation by employing M-ary signaling.
• Specifically, we can apply M-level ASK, M-frequency FSK, and M-phase PSK
modulations.

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Modern Digital and Analog

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Fundamental building blocks of digital communication systems

• The input to a digital system takes the form of a sequence of digits.

• The input could be the output from a data set, a computer, or a

• A source can be used for either binary (communication schemes

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• Digital multiplexing can be achieved through frequency division or time

• Through it a physical channel is normally shared by several messages

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• This process periodically eliminates, and thereby combats, accumulation

• The ability of such regenerative repeaters to effectively eliminate noise

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• The polar signal has most of its power concentrated

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• The desired PSD of the on-off waveform y(t) is

PSD of an on-off signal

PSD of bipolar, polar, and split-phase signals

• Such a modified coding is designated as high-density bipolar coding

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HDB3 signal PSD of HDB3 signal

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• We have already discussed how the PSD is controlled by a line code.

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• The Fourier transform of this pulse is

which has a bandwidth Rb/2 Hz.

Timing Error in using sinc pulse

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• A pulse satisfying above (second) criterion is also

• A simple detector of duobinary signaling

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• This pulse transmits binary data at a rate of Rb bit/s

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Pulse generation by transversal filter

• Regeneration of the input sequence S from the received

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The repeater consists of a

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Zero-forcing equalizer analysis

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Error probability in threshold detection

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Transmission of a signal by polar NRZ pulses; its eye diagram

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• We can increase the rate of information transmission by increasing M. This

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