SPD2321 Chinese Civilization

and Modern Consciousness

from the West
Lecture 4 Orientalism and Western Representations of the
“Other”
Instructor: Dr. Terence Leung
Orientalism: An Introduction
Hints of reading Edward Said’s “Orientalism”

The main arguments appear in the first few pages of the article;
the rest are just elaborations of the same argument.

Many names mentioned in the text are primarily European and

American writers, e.g. Vico is a 17th century Italian historian and
philosopher; Disraeli is a 19th century British politician; Flaubert is
a 19th century French novelist; Wallace Steven is a 20th century
American poet, etc.

“Orientalism” – the Western studies of the Orient (the East, to be

specific, the Middle East, the area of Arabians); “Orientalist” –
scholar (mostly a Westerner) who studies and specializes the East

Notice the difference between pure knowledge and political

knowledge; and the difference between latent (hidden, covered
up, not obvious) Orientalism and manifest (showy, obvious)
Orientalism.
Orientalism: An Introduction
Edward Said 薩義德 , an American professor of Palestinian
origin, argues in his book entitled Orientalism (1978)
that:

1) “Orientalism” as an idea or image is not identical to

the Orient as reality

2) Orientalism is a system of representations and a field

consisting of many academic disciplines, including
scholarly discovery, philological reconstruction (i.e.
comparative linguistics), psychological analysis, landscape
and sociological description, literary studies etc.
Orientalism: An Introduction
3) Orientalism has less to do with the Orient than it does
with Western world

4) Knowledge is never pure and innocent or neutral. The

production of knowledge itself is power practice. No
production of knowledge can ignore its author’s
involvement as a human subject in his own circumstances
or contextual belonging

 e.g. a European or American studying the Orient cannot

ignore his/her own actuality – he/she is a European or
American first, an individual the second.

5) The geographical and cultural entity, such locale,

region as Orient/Occident is man-made and artificial.
Orientalism: An Introduction
東方主義或東方學（ Orientalism ）是西方對近、中及遠
東社會文化、語言及人文的研究。

它亦可意為西方作家、設計師及藝術家對東方的模仿及描
繪。以東方主義形容西方對東方的研究是有負面意思的，
在「西方」的知識、制度和政治／經濟政策中，長期積累
的那種將「東方」假設並建構為異質的、分裂的和「他者
化」的思維。在一些激進作品中，東方甚至被認為是西方
的對立面；即將所謂的「他們」（ They ）表現成「我
們」（ Us ）的反面。 (source: wikipedia)
Orientalism: An Introduction
BUT at the same time, Orientalism is never simply a
bunch of lies and fantasy.

BECAUSE there has been a considerable material

investment in Orientalism in the West.

The studies of the Orient become reproducible knowledge

in universities, books, and common beliefs. It is
supported by academic institutions.

The consent is gained through the education of school,

value of family, beliefs of church, rules of the union
which altogether form the civil society, with the support
of bureaucracy, police and army.
Orientalism: An Introduction
薩義德於 1978 年在他富爭議的名著《東方主義》裏清晰
表達並宣揚了這個觀點，批評這種學術傳統以及一些現代
學者，例如普林斯頓大學教授 Bernard Lewis 和耶魯大學
教授塞繆爾 ·P· 亨廷頓。

薩義德認為，東方主義屬於西方建構產物，旨在為東西建
立一個明顯的分野，從而突出西方文化的優越性；而在法
國和英國要讓東方國家如阿爾及利亞、埃及、印度成為殖
民地的時候，這種思想形態便在政治上有利用價值。
Orientalism: An Introduction
薩義德認為，這種建構及論述，與那些國家的真實面貌幾
乎毫無關係。即使西方人要重新認識東方，他們大都跳不
出這種論述的框框。

有學者總結薩義德的觀點如下：「薩義德曾以伊斯蘭研究
為中心分析過歐洲的東方學，他把這種學問視為一種根據
東方在歐洲西方經驗中的位置而處理、協調東方的方式，
在這種方式中，東方成為了歐洲物質文明和文化的內在組
成部分，是歐洲自我得以建立的它者。對於歐洲而言，東
方既不是歐洲的純粹虛構或奇想，也不是一種自然的存
在，而是一種被人為創造出來的理論和實踐體系，蘊含著
漫長歷史積累下來的物質層面的內容。」 (source:
wikipedia)
Orientalism: An Introduction
Why Orientalism is significant for the West?

1) Orientalism is to justify the European superiority and

domination over the Orient

2) Mirror-image: the West needs an inferior other to

constitute its own identity
Orientalism: An Introduction
Why Orientalism is significant for the West?

1) Orientalism is to justify the European superiority and

domination over the Orient

2) Mirror-image: the West needs an inferior other to

constitute its own identity
Orientalism: An Introduction
Eurocentrism 歐洲中心論 is the practice of viewing the
world from a European perspective and with an implied
belief, either consciously or subconsciously, in the
preeminence 傑出 of European culture.

The term was coined in the 1980s (by Samir Amin),

referring to the notion of European exceptionalism 歐 洲
例外主義 , a worldview centered on Western civilization,
as it had developed during the height of the European
colonial empires since the Early Modern period.

The term became prevalent in the discourse during the

1990s, for instance in the context of decolonization.
Orientalism: An Introduction
歐洲中心主義（ Eurocentrism ），又稱西方中心主義，是一種從
歐洲的角度來看整個世界的一個隱含的信念，自覺或下意識感覺
到歐洲對於世界的優越感。

歐洲中心論者認為歐洲的文明是世界上最進步最典型的文明。根
據歐洲中心主義的這種理論，歐洲以外的國家都是野蠻的，只能
向歐洲學習並沿著歐洲的路子去發展。 (source: wikipedia)

Zeybek (2013) argued: “When history is being written, a linear

model of civilization leading by Europe (West) is considered
the only way to do so. It is argued that the Eurocentric vision
puts the Orient in a frame of their norms and ideas, not even
studying the differences before doing this, silencing the
''Other'' and thinking the Orient just as a repetition of Europe
(the West)”
Orientalism: An Introduction
Said’s conspiracy theory: Orientalism is a combination
of Western empire (military power), Western learning
and Western consciousness.

In short, Said believes critics and intellectuals should

adopt an oppositional stance which opens up to
investigate the social and political world than being in
complicity 同 謀 with the dominant Eurocentric model
of values and thoughts.
Orientalism: An Introduction
Binary oppositions in Western portrayals of the Orient:

- Strong vs. weak – The Orientals are backward 落後 ,

degenerate, uncivilized, weak and retarded; the West is
advanced, elegant 優雅 , civilized, strong and intelligent

- Subject vs. object – The Orient is a passive object to be

seen, analyzed, a problem to be solved or confined or
taken over. It has no (autonomous 自主 ) voice, but is
only spoken for.

- Masculine vs. feminine – The Orient is always feminized:

women are usually the creatures of male fantasy (e.g.
Arabian Nights 一千零一夜 and their erotic tales)
Orientalism: An Introduction
持偏見態度的人被認為是時常有意無意地抱著十八、十九世
紀的歐洲帝國主義態度來理解東方世界，又或對東方文化及
人文的舊式及帶有偏見的理解。

東方主義的描述性表達無一例外地將地中海以東各國家社會
的多種生活進行了對象化、本質化和刻板印象的方式處理。

對立化的表現有： 敵視（ the xenophobic ）：專注於他者

的威脅性和可憎性（如暴君、原教旨主義、恐怖主義等，東
方男性成為墮落無恥且被妖魔化的對象）。

異域（ the xenophilic ）：關注他者具有吸引力的一面（如

閨房、面紗、藝妓等，東方女性被描繪成為放蕩、順從且頗
具異域風情）。
Orientalism: An Introduction
A Summary of Said’s Orientalism:

Orientalism is a corporate institution for authorizing

views about the Orient and ruling over it; the Orient is
actually a production of Western knowledge and
discourse, a means of self-definition of Western culture
as well as justifying imperialist domination of oriental
peoples

Said’s aim is not show that the edifice of language

distorts a ‘real’ Orient, but rather to display it as a
language, with an internal consistency, motivation, and
capacity for representation built on a relationship of
power and hegemony over the Orient
Orientalism: An Introduction
He closely examines Western discourses/representations
about the Orient in general and Islam in particular

Orientalism is a field that consists of many disciplines, a

system of representations

The production of knowledge itself is power practice.

No knowledge can be produced outside historical,
political context, and is tied to the socioeconomic and
political institutions

Orientalism not just a bunch of lies and fantasy but also

involves material investments
Orientalism: An Introduction
Orientalism helps justify the European supremacy and
domination over the Orient, and the West needs an
inferior other to formulate its identity

Orientalism is a combination of Western empire,

Western learning and Western consciousness a
‘trinity’

Said perceives a certain fundamental problems in

oppositional stances and does NOT want to simply
replace orientalism with occidentalism 西方主義
Orientalism: An Introduction
Questions on Said’s arguments:

1) Is there any “truth” if everything is political and

ideological? No universal ideal?

2) Has there been a unified character of Western

discourse on the Orient over 200 years?

3) Is there any counter-hegemonic 反霸權 writing in

the West? Like literary discourse?
Orientalism: An Introduction
4) Why does Said never really talk about the Oriental
literatures or third world literatures? Probably because
he is too westernized to understand the reality of the
Orient?

5) Is Said also using the Western structure of thinking,

i.e. the binary opposition 二元對立 , to read and
comprehend the world?
Mulan and Orientalism
As Said (2013) stated:

“The Orient is not just a neighbour, but it is also the

greatest, richest, oldest place for exploitation, the
source of their civilization and language, cultural rival
and the deepest, the most repeated 'Other' image, for
Europe.”

薩義德的東方主義強調了他者問題中的單向書寫一面，即
西方怎樣生產東方他者形象的問題，這是由他的批判目標
所決定的。
Mulan and Orientalism
As a whole, Orientalism is an academic discourse that
handles the approach of the West towards the Orient,
which includes Middle Eastern, African and Asian
societies.

According to this discourse, the West essentializes these

societies as under-developed, primitive, romanticizes
them and represents them with problematic cultural
assumptions.
Mulan and Orientalism
Mulan, being the first Disney movie to be placed in Asia,
has certain elements that are the examples for
representations Orientalism in movies.

The movie is based on a Chinese traditional story about

a woman who went to war instead of his old father for
her family's honour by disguising herself into a man.

The story emphasizes the patriotic feelings and loyalty

to both family and country.
Mulan and Orientalism
In ‘Mulan’ it can be said about the characters that, ‘All of the
characters in the animation have similar appearances-yellow
skin, thin lips, small and chinky eyes-even though real Asian
people all have different characteristics.

Characters eat with chopsticks, drink tea after the dinner, go

around with bare feet.

The clothing is an example of Orientalism too  for example,

when the film portrays Mulan, her outfits and makeup are
much similar to that of Japan’s rather than China’s.

She wears the cloth similar to Japanese traditional cloth

‘Kimono’, and her hairstyle is the one which was famous in
Japan at that time.’
Mulan and Orientalism
The flower that is mainly used in the movie to
emphasize the theme is cherry blossoms, which is the
national flower of Japan.

Also, there are items that do not fit the time

background; people wear glasses and the Great Wall
appears in the movie even though it did not exist in the
time period during which the story of Mulan took place.

Mulan used dynamite as a major tool to defeat the

enemies, but dynamite also was not invented at that
time.
Mulan and Orientalism
The main character, Mulan, even disguises herself as a
man in order to keep her family’s honour which can be
considered as self-sacrifice.

It is true that collectivism was a more important value

than individualism in ancient Asia, but it doesn’t mean
that people had to sacrifice their own important values
for others.

‘In Mulan, the characters accept it so naturally that it is

likely to be perceived to people who don’t know Asia,
that all Asian people can sacrifice themselves greatly
just for the honour of the family or the country.’ (Lee
2012)
Mulan and Orientalism
Some things about religion are depicted in a distorted
way.

‘’The movie portrayed the traditional Chinese belief about

household gods, but most of part is a distorted way. The
household gods were illustrated as prejudiced toward
women and narrow-sighted, and it can be considered as a
disrespect for Chinese traditional beliefs.’’ (Lee 2012)

Turkish people were offended that the film depicts Turkish

ancestors as evil and barbaric.

LAST BUT NOT LEAST: Is Mulan a Western or a Chinese

character?
Mulan and Orientalism
A Short Summary about the Orientalist features of
Mulan:

1) Ahistorical (i.e. not historical) representation

2) Western values of modern women over the Chinese

gender values (i.e. “China without China”)  using
‘China’ as a projection screen for Western fantasy

3) Not a complete liberation of women either!  return

to domestic values/patriarchal 父權 consciousness and
heterosexual norms 異性戀規範 at the finale
Did Western Representations of ‘China’
Change in History?

Jonathan Spence’s The Chan’s Continent tells us that,

over the last seven centuries, the way how the West
looked at China always changed with different historical
periods.

In 13th century, Marco Polo in his travelogue described

China as the most advanced, mighty, civilized country in
the world.

European (Enlightenment) thinkers, such as Montaigne,

Montesquieu, Diderot, Voltaire, idealized Chinese
culture, philosophy and institutions. They held up
Chinese culture as a critical mirror to European customs
and religions.
Did Western Representations of ‘China’
Change in History?

But beginning from the 18th century, the Western

imperialists started confronting China with hostility,
especially they say Chinese traditional rituals, like
kowtow, a humiliating gesture to Western dignity.

In mid-19th century, Chinese laborers migrated to the

United States and they were regarded as threat and
discriminated against by the Americans  “Yellow Peril
complex” 黃禍論
Did Western Representations of ‘China’
Change in History?

The Chinese Communist regime of the 20th century was

regarded by the capitalist West as a formidable enemy
while the Maoist Cultural Revolution launched in China
was fantasized by the Western leftists as an inspiring
political and revolutionary movements  i.e. world
1960s and global Maoism

Contemporary China is now imagined as both “economic

superpower” and “political threat” by Western nations
 breeding the discourse of “peaceful rise” 和平崛起論
Did Western Representations of ‘China’
Change in History?
Other relevant works that challenge Eurocentric representations of the
non-West:

Martin Bernal, Black Athena (1987)

Samir Amin, Eurocentrism (1989)

Marshall Hodgson, Rethinking World History (1993)

J.M.Blaut, The Colonizer’s Model of the World (1993)

Andre Gunder Frank and Barry Grills eds., The World System: Five
Hundred Years or Five Thousand? (1993)

Liu Kang, 妖魔化中國的背後 (1996)

Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (1998)

CC. Barfoot and Theo D’haen eds., Oriental Prospects: Western Literature
and the Lure of the East (1998)

A. L. Macfie ed, Orientalism: A Reader (2000)