SPD2321 Chinese Civilization and Modern 

Consciousness from the West

Lecture 11 The Ideas of “Change” in Chinese Culture
Instructor: Dr. Terence Leung
The Confucian “Mandate of Heaven” and the Taoist
Idea of “Change”

 The Mandate of Heaven ( 天 命 ) is an ancient

Confucian belief and philosophical idea that tiān
(heaven) granted emperors the right to rule based
on their ability to govern well and fairly.
 According to this belief, heaven bestows its
mandate to a just ruler, the Son of Heaven.
 The Mandate of Heaven depends on whether an
emperor is sufficiently virtuous to rule; if he does
not fulfill his obligations as emperor, then he loses
the Mandate and thus the right to be emperor.
The Confucian “Mandate of Heaven” and the
Taoist Idea of “Change”

 天命指上天所主宰的「命運」，可以是「個人」、
「國家」乃至於「世界」的命運。

 此一詞在古中國常用來解釋新政權的合法性，主
張朝代興衰、君主更替，乃是上天的命令，不是
人類所能控制的，上天支持的對象自然能夠稱帝
稱王，上天不支持的對象則會衰弱滅亡。
The Confucian “Mandate of Heaven” and the
Taoist Idea of “Change”

 天，為天然，或自然之義；命，為人生天然所賦
之條件，為人生自然所必遵之理，故朱子云「命
猶令也」。

 萬物俱賦有天然生存之條件，故有其自然生存之
規律，必循此規律始能生存，此為天所命令，而
不能違抗者也；如人遭到侵害，則必反抗，天命
有自衛之道；受到慈惠，則必報恩，天命有仁愛
之德；如此，方能共存共榮，是曰順天之命。

 反之，違背天命，傷害天理，則必遭天譴。
The Confucian “Mandate of Heaven” and the
Taoist Idea of “Change”

 逆天而行 - 違背天意做事  比喻違背客觀形勢或規律

 孟子云「知命者，不立乎巖牆之下」（盡心篇）；知命者必遵道而
行，故為君子；不立巖牆之下，即不行險以圖僥倖；故君子樂天知
命。

 知命必須安命，「素患難，行乎患難」，無所畏懼，「素貧賤，行
乎貧賤」，不作義外之求，（中庸）。

 天命乃人生所不能違逆者，凡人力無可如何之事，皆曰命；故人之
吉凶遭遇，不能從人之所願，皆為命中之事，稱之曰命運。

 人生之禍福，有幸有不幸，時機所使然，條件所使然，有才幹而無
機會不能成功，有機會而無才幹亦不能成功，時運非人力所能造，
才智亦非人力所能造，皆為命定之事；諺云「人定勝天」，乃人類
自豪之辭，乃對畏難茍安者鼓勵之語耳！
The Confucian “Mandate of Heaven” and the
Taoist Idea of “Change”

 Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the I Ching 易

經 (Book of Change), proposes that the universe
works harmoniously according to its own ways.
 When someone exerts their will against the world
in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of
change, they may disrupt that harmony and
unintended consequences may more likely result
rather than the willed outcome.
 Taoism asserts that one must place their will in
harmony with the natural universe.
The Confucian “Mandate of Heaven” and the
Taoist Idea of “Change”

 《易經》或「周易」，在幾種較早期的文獻（例
如《論語》、《莊子》、《左傳》等）稱為
《易》。
 「易」 有幾種解釋： 必須指出，理解西周之
「易」，理當以西周禮樂制度的變革為條件。
 變易、變化的意思，指天下萬物是常變的，故此
《周易》是教導人面對變易的書。
 交易，亦即陰消陽長、陽消陰長的相互變化。如
一般的太極圖所顯示的一樣。
The Confucian “Mandate of Heaven” and the
Taoist Idea of “Change”

 『易』即是「道」，恆常的真理，即使事物隨著
時空變幻，恆常的道不變。

 日升而天明，日落而天黯。明而接黯，黯而續明。
終而復始，無始無終。一如生死。一如成敗。一
如興亡。

 合明，生，成，興之類為陽。總黯，死，敗，亡
之屬為陰。陰陽相生相剋，萬事周而復始，是謂
易。
The Confucian “Mandate of Heaven” and the
Taoist Idea of “Change”

 The ambiguous term wu-wei (無爲) constitutes the

leading ethical concept in Taoism.

 Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action,

while wu carries the meaning of “there is no …” or
“lacking, without.”
The Confucian “Mandate of Heaven” and the
Taoist Idea of “Change”

 By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony

with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by
‘nonaction.’

 Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be

avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved
effortlessly.
The Confucian “Mandate of Heaven” and the
Taoist Idea of “Change”

 無為指經過有為的思考，以時勢、趨勢的判斷做出順
勢而為的行為，即順應自然的變化規律，使事物保持
其天然的本性而不人為做作，從而達到“無為而無不
為”的境界。
 勢  而「養勢」和「留勢」則是於「要其往」和
「俟其來」之間審時知幾。
 根據處理問題不同，“無為”的態度即可用於政治的政
策方針，政府無為，百姓自治；也可以用於修身養性。
 無為不是無所作為，不是無所事事，而是不做無效的
工作。不該干的不能幹，該干的必須幹，不能反著來；
不然就是違背了道。( 《淮南子·原道訓》：“無為為
之而合於道”)
The Confucian “Mandate of Heaven” and the
Taoist Idea of “Change”
 道家中的“無為”一般包含著兩層含義：一是崇尚天道（自然
法則），即人與自然界之間的自然無為提出“道法自然”“天地
生萬物，然生而不有，為而不恃，長而不宰”。

 二是崇尚人道（人事規範），即人類活動應與天道般自然無
為。提出“輔萬物之自然，而不敢為也”。

 其中在崇尚人道方面又有兩層意思，一即提倡人應順應自然
界，隨緣而動，不要隨意破壞自然的和諧與平衡；二即社會
人際關係方面，提倡應統治者效法“道”的自然無為精神，盡
量簡化社會的各種制度與規範以保持民間民風純樸。

 以柔化剛 , 以弱勝強 , 順其勢而化之 , 也就是四兩撥千斤 。

 道家的“無為”，是清靜自守之義，是道家以“道” 修身所要達
到的“合於道” 的理想境界。能達到這種理想境界便無所不能
為（“無為而無不為”）。
Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist 
Revolution
• 愚公精神
• “中國古代有個寓言，叫做'愚公移山'。說的是古代有一位老人，
住在華北，名叫北山愚公。
• 他的家門南面有兩座大山擋住他家的出路，一座叫做太行山，
一座叫做王屋山。
• 愚公下決心率領他的兒子們要用鋤頭挖去這兩座大山。
• 有個老頭子名叫智叟的看了發笑，說是你們這樣幹未免太愚蠢
了，你們父子數人要挖掉這樣兩座大山是完全不可能的。
• 愚公回答說：我死了以後有我的兒子，兒子死了，又有孫子，
子子孫孫是沒有窮盡的。這兩座山雖然很高，卻是不會再增高
了，挖一點就會少一點，為什麼挖不平呢？”
Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist 
Revolution

• 愚公批駁了智叟的錯誤思想，毫不動搖，每天挖山不止。
• 這件事感動了上帝，他就派了兩個神仙下凡，把兩座山
背走了。
• 現在也有兩座壓在中國人民頭上的大山，一座叫做帝國
主義，一座叫做封建主義。
• 中國共產黨早就下了決心，要挖掉這兩座山。我們一定
要堅持下去，一定要不斷地工作，我們也會感動上帝的。
• 這個上帝不是別人，就是全中國的人民大眾。全國人民
大眾一齊起來和我們一道挖這兩座山，有什麼挖不平
呢？ ”
•  結論: 人定勝天
Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist 
Revolution
Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist Revolution

 In the mid-1950s, profound ideological differences

between China and the Soviet Union began to emerge.
 Unlike the early phase of the Maoist era, Communist
China no longer obtained many professional and
economic supports from the Soviet Union after the
death of Joseph Stalin in the mid-1950s.
 The Great Leap Forward 大躍進 was launched in the
water of 1957-58 with the aim of speeding up economic
growth.
 Agricultural collectives were merged to make enormous
new units called “People’s Communes” (rénmín
gōngshè 人民公社).
Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist Revolution
Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist Revolution

 Local collectively owned small-scale industry, often using

indigenous technology 土法技術, would be encouraged.
 Modern industry was to be developed at the provincial
level, making even the largely agricultural inland
provinces self-sufficient in consumer goods.
 Their intention was to eliminate transport bottle necks
and, through a dribble-down effect, to promote
industrialization even in the most backward areas.  i.e.
in order to build up a more equal relationship between
the rural and the urban
Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist Revolution

 Glorifying the People’s Commune

 People’s Commune Kitchen and Commune Canteen

Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist Revolution

Collectivization Campaigns

Backyard Furnace后院炉
Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist Revolution

 However, the combination of enthusiasms and irrational

initiatives, along with Mao’s increasing dismissal of criticism
itself, his policies, and theories, produced a tragic situation in
China by 1959.

 Provincial and local authorities, eager to be on the right side of

history and of Mao, reported crazily inflated statistics intended to
demonstrate the massive gains made in steel and grain
production.

 Based upon these falsified numbers, it remained unclear for some

time that crops were rotting in the field for lack of labor to
harvest them.

 Women and children working sixteen-hour days were insufficient

for what would have been the largest harvest in Chinese history.
Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist Revolution

 It was clear the steel produced in backyard furnaces was

unusable in any form, and yet no one dared to call a halt to
such projects.

 Hunger began to stalk the land. Even in privileged locations,

such as Zhongnanhai 中南海, scarcities of meat and vegetables
began showing up.

 Urban dwellers found food more and more difficult to obtain,

and rationing was established to ensure a certain minimum of
necessities for each family.

 It often was not enough, and urban babies of this Great Leap
generation were often physically stunted because of
malnutrition.
Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist Revolution

 大躍進是於1958年至1960年上半年，在中國共產
黨領導下，在中華人民共和國發生的試圖利用本
土充裕勞動力和蓬勃的群眾熱情在工業和農業上
「躍進」的社會主義建設運動。
 有人口統計學學家估計，於大躍進非戰爭期間，
死亡人數在1,800萬至3,250萬之間（此處極具爭
議）。
 歷史學家馮客聲稱「脅迫、恐嚇、系統性暴力構
築了大躍進的基礎」，「人類歷史上最大規模的
一次有預謀的大屠殺」。
Possibilizing the Impossible: On Maoist Revolution

 由於1956年中華人民共和國生產資料私有制的社會主義改造基本完
成，1957年又完成了發展國民經濟的第一個五年計劃，中共高層發
動了 「大躍進」運動。

 「人有多大膽 地有多大產」; 「群眾想移山，山走；群眾想移地，地

動；只要革了思想命，無雨大增產，大旱大豐收；人可以讓地球服、
海洋降，强迫宇宙吐寶藏」

 脫離實際的「大煉鋼鐵」運動隨後在全國範圍內推廣，而人民公社
化運動也嚴重地傷害了農業生產積極性，糧食產量無法保證，人民
生產意願降低，導致連年饑荒。

 為保證農產品達標，農村開始虛報糧食產量，「大放衛星」現象蔓
延開來。

 但是中國對於糧食的徵購卻按照虛報產量制定標準。

 大躍進運動浮誇的現象和很快暴露的問題也招致黨內外大量的質疑
之聲。
 The Handshake That Changed the World

 The early 1970s recorded a new chapter in world history.

 U.S. President Richard Nixon’s 尼克松 1972 visit to the People’s

Republic of China was an important step in formally
normalizing relations between the United States and the
People’s Republic of China.

 It marked the first time a U.S. president had visited the PRC,
which at that time considered the U.S. one of its foes, and the
visit ended 25 years of separation between the two sides.

 After the notorious episode of Lin Piao’s renegacy 林彪之變 in

1971 as well as the early fanatical period of the Cultural
Revolution, many Chinese officials were quite eager in
rehabilitating its own national image from the various biases
among the Western counterparts during the early 1970s.
 
The Handshake That Changed the World

Ping-Pong Diplomacy (乒乓外交)

The first breakthrough occurred in mid-April 1971. The U.S. Ping-
Pong team, competing in the thirty-first world table tennis
championships in Japan, received an invitation to play friendly
matches with the Chinese team in China.
Unenthusiastic when the idea first was presented, Mao became
convinced that sports were a great way to push forward
diplomacy.
 
The Handshake That Changed the World
 
The Handshake That Changed the World

• Occurring from February 21 to 28, 1972, the visit allowed the

American public to view images of China for the first time in
over two decades.

• Throughout the week the President and his most senior

advisers engaged in substantive discussions with the PRC,
including a meeting with Chairman Mao, while First Lady Pat
Nixon toured schools, factories and hospitals in the cities of
Beijing, Shanghai and Hangzhou with the large American
press corps in tow.

• Nixon frequently dubbed the visit as “the week that changed

the world.” (改变世界的一周)
 The Handshake That Changed the World

 In China, the new Party tactic of seeking “peaceful

coexistence” 和平共处 with the U.S., which had been the
major ideological enemy of Maoist people for decades, was not
welcomed by some rank-and-file CCP officials such as the Gang
of Four 四人幫.

 「四人幫」為中華人民共和國「無產階級文化大革命」時期（形成
的一個政治集團的名稱，形成於1973年中國共產黨第十次全國
代表大會之後。

 其成員按「粉碎四人幫」時中共中央公布的順序依次為王洪文、
張春橋、江青和姚文元。

 江青為毛澤東妻子，張春橋、姚文元和王洪文均由毛澤東從上
海提拔到中共中央並委以重任，四人在後期皆為中共中央政治
局委員。
 The Handshake That Changed the World

 Zhou Enlai’s moderate policy was thought to be

an example of the “inert” practice of the
Confucian Doctrine of the Mean 中庸之道.

 Zhou’s efforts to re-employ some of the veteran

cadres overthrown in the Cultural Revolution
were seen as an attempt to “lazily” restore the
pre-Cultural Revolution order, representing the
very “defunct state” (开倒车).
 The Handshake That Changed the World

 批林批孔運動（批林批孔）是1974年1月18日至6月，經毛
澤東批准，在文化大革命中發起的一次批判林彪和孔子兩
個人為主題的政治運動。
 1970年，毛澤東再一次見到老朋友斯諾。毛澤東忽然對斯
諾說：我就像一個手執雨傘雲遊四方的孤僧。“和尚打傘，
無法無天”。
 1973年7月4日，毛澤東指出：「尊孔反法，國民黨也是一
樣啊！林彪也是啊！」
 9月，毛澤東在會見外賓時說：「秦始皇是中國封建社會第
一個有名的皇帝，我也是秦始皇，林彪罵我是秦始皇。中
國歷來分兩派，一派講秦始皇好，一派講秦始皇壞。我贊
成秦始皇，不贊成孔夫子。」
 
The Handshake That Changed the World
 The Handshake That Changed the World

 1974年1月18日，毛澤東批准江青、王洪文的要求，
轉發江青主持選編的《林彪與孔孟之道》，批林批孔
運動展開。 因孔子在家族中排行第二，在運動中被
辱稱「孔老二」。
 當時中國大陸各地的孔廟及相關文物古跡因此遭到
了極大的破壞。 當時許多與批林批孔運動相關的書
籍出版，甚至導致儒家思想方面的學術發展受到很大
阻礙。

 例如，當時著名學者、中山大學教授王季思由於拒絕
批判儒家學說，而被視為「反動學術權威」，遭到殘
酷迫害。
 The Handshake That Changed the World

 「批林批孔」的「林」是指林彪，「孔」是指孔子，
目的是要借題發揮，打倒周恩來。
 The propagandistic subtext of the Pi-lin-Pi-kong is
actually “Pi-lin-Pi-kong-Pi-Zhou-Gong” (批林批孔批周公)
 Zhou Gong was the Duke of Zhou in Chinese ancient
history. And in everyday use, Zhou Gong is also
referred to “dreaming” and “sleeping.”
 According to Ma Jiasen, “Zhou Gong” 周公 was also a
name used to refer to Zhou Enlai during his
underground works for the communists in the 1920s.
 
The Handshake That Changed the World

• Celebrated Chinese communist poet and historian Guo Moruo 郭沫若,

for example, was the most famous person in China who suffered as a
scapegoat to sustain the fire of the campaign.

• Although he had been so distinguished throughout Chinese

communist history for his well-known denunciation of Chiang Kai-shek
蒋介石 during the civil war (even Mao himself respected Guo very
much), he was forced to write a self-criticism publicly.
 
The Handshake That Changed the World

Actually, the opening-up of Chinese-Western dialogue

in the 1970s, contrary to the aforementioned ultra-
leftist views, does not necessarily mean that the Maoist
revolution has been overtly betrayed and nullified 废弃.

According to Ma Jisen, the normalization of Sino-US

diplomacy “was merely a readjustment in tactics, and
did not mean that Mao Zedong’s understanding of the
world situation has changed.