Highway Engineering

Akhtar Abbas
Assistant Professor

The University of Lahore

www.uol.edu.pk/ce

Department of Civil Engineering,

(31-03-2015)
 Geometric Design

• The geometric design of roadways deals

with the positioning of the physical
elements of the roadway according to
standards and constraints.

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 Geometric Design

• Objective of geometric design

• The basic objective in geometric design is
to provide
1.A smooth-flowing
2.Crash-free facility

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 Geometric Design

• Geometric roadway design can be broken

into three main parts:-
1.Alignment
2.Profile
3.cross-section
. Combined, these provide a three-
dimensional layout for a roadway

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 Geometric Design

• Alignment
The alignment is the route of the road,
defined as a series of horizontal tangents
and curves
• Profile
The profile is the vertical aspect of the
road, including crest and sag curves, and
the straight grades connecting them.
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 Geometric Design

• Cross Section
The cross section shows the position
and number of vehicle and bicycle lanes
and sidewalks, along with their cross slope
or banking. Cross sections also show
drainage features, pavement structure and
other items outside the category of
geometric design.
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Typical-cross-section-of-
highway-4-lane

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 Geometric Design

• The Geometric Design of highways deals

with the following elements
1.Cross-section elements:- pavements,
width, formation width, surface
characteristics, camber
2.Sight distance
3.Intersection elements

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 Geometric Design

4. Horizontal and vertical alignment details

• Highway geometrics are generally
influenced by the topography, locality
and traffic characteristics etc of the
region.
• Factors like speed, design traffic, traffic
capacity, benefit cost ratio etc govern the
geometric design of highway.
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 Requisite of Good Road

• A good road surface should posses the

following characteristics:-
1.It should remained dry throughout the
year.
2.It should have good carriage way.
3.It should have smooth gradients, smooth
and large curves.

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 Requisite of Good Road

4. Its initial cost and maintenance cost

should be minimum.
5. It should have a good impervious
wearing surface.

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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Elements of typical cross section of road

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 Elements of typical
cross section of road

• Number of travel lanes to be provided

• Width and location of shoulders
• Medians
• Slopes
• Embankments and Ditches

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 Cross section of Road

Components of a flexible pavement *

Cross section of Road

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Cross section of Road

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 Elements of typical
cross section of road

• Carriage way width or pavement width

The carriage way width depends upon the
traffic lane and the number of lanes.
The carriage way intended for one line of
traffic movement is called traffic lane.
The lane width is determined on the basis
of vehicle width and the minimum side
clearance provided for safety purposes
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 Elements of typical
cross section of road

If the side clearance is more, operating

speed of may also be increased which
enhances the capacity of traffic lane.
Thus for a 2.44 meter wide vehicle having
sufficient clearance of 68 cm on both
sides, a carriage way of 3.8 meter width
is sufficient for a single lane.

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 SEPARATOR

• The main object of these separators is to

prevent the head on collision between two
vehicles moving in opposite directions in
the adjacent lanes.
It reduces the head light glare.
These separators may be in the form of
marking, physical dividers or area
separator
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 SEPARATOR

• Pavement marking is simplest and cheap.

• Mechanical separators should be designed
in such a way that even if the wheels of
vehicle encroach on it, but no damage
should be done to the vehicle.
• Theoretically it is desirable to have a wide
area separators of 8 to 14 m width, but

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 SEPARATOR

actually it should be decided in conformity

with the availability of land and its cost.
• To reduce the head light glare, a minimum
width of 6 m is required

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SEPARATOR

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SEPARATOR

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SEPARATOR

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 KERBS

• Kerbs indicate the boundary between the

pavement and shoulder.
• Karbs may be divided into three groups
1.Low kerbs
The height of this class of kerbs is 7 to 8
cm. The vehicle can climb on these kerbs
easily. They are also useful for longitudinal
drainage system
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 KERBS

2. Urban Parking Kerbs

• This class of kerbs are 15 to 20 cm high
with 1:1 better to prevent scraping of
tires.
• This type of kerbs prevent encroachment
of the foot path or parking space by slow
moving vehicles.

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 KERBS

3.High speed barrier

• This class of kerbs is used in hilly roads or
on bridges. They are 23 to 45 cm high and
do not allow the vehicle to leave the
pavement.
• These have steep batter.

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KERBS

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 KERBS

•.

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KERBS

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KERBS

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 ROAD MARGINS

• Various elements included in road margins

are
1.Shoulders
2.Parking Lanes
3.Drive way
4.Frontage Road
5.Cycle track
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 ROAD MARGINS

6. Foot Path
7. Guard rails

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 SHOULDERS

• Shoulder are provided along the edge of

the pavement on both sides to provide
lateral support.
• They also serve as an emergency lane for
damaged vehicle or otherwise vehicle to
leave the main lane.
• The minimum width of shoulders should
not be less than 4.6 m
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 Parking Lane

• In Urban areas parking lanes are also

provided
• Parking lanes should have sufficient 3 m
width,
• Generally parallel parking should be
allowed , as it is safer, to drive.

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ROAD MARGINS

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ROAD MARGINS

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ROAD MARGINS

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ROAD MARGINS

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ROAD MARGINS

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ROAD MARGINS

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ROAD MARGINS

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 Drive Ways

• Drive way connect the main highway with

the service or fuel station.
• They should be located away from
intersections
• For safe crossing, the width of drive ways
should be kept minimum and radius
maximum.

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Drive Ways

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 Frontage Road
Service Road

• These roads are provided to give access to

the properties along an important highway
• These roads may run parallel to the
highway and be isolated by a separator,
with approaches at selected points.

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 Cycle Track

• In urban areas cycle tracks are provided if

the cycle traffic is very high on the road
• Generally the minimum width of cycle
track should not be less than 3 meter.
• In case a double lane cycle track is
provided, its width may be kept as 3
meter

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 Foot Path

• In urban areas where vehicular as well as

pedestrian traffic is very high, footpath is
provided
• Foot paths generally provided on both
sides of pavement. The width of foot path
should not be less than 1.5 m.
• Its surface should be smooth so no
inconvenience is caused to the pedestrians
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 Guard Rails

• These are provided if the highway is

constructed on embankments higher than
3 meters to prevent the vehicles from
running off the pavements

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Guard Rails

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 Width of Formation

• The width of formation includes the width

of pavement shoulders and separators, if
any.
• In the case of embankment, formation
width is equal to the top width of
embankment and in case of cutting it is
taken as the bottom width of cutting
minus the side drains
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 Right of Way

• It is the area of land acquired for the road

along its alignment
• The width of this land is known as land
width and depends upon the importance
of road and its possible future
development.

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 Camber or Cross Slope

• Camber is the slope provided in the

transverse direction of the road to drain
off the rain water from road surface
• Usually camber is provided in the straight
roads by raising the centre of the carriage
way with respect to the edges forming
highest point at centre

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 Camber

• At horizontal curves, surface drainage is

done by raising the outer edge of the
pavement with respect to inner edge.
• The rate of camber depends upon the
following two factors:
1.The amount of rainfall
2.Type of pavement surface

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 Camber

• Types of cambers depend upon the type

of pavement surface
1.Barrel camber
2.Sloped camber
3.Composite camber

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 Barrel Camber

• It consists of continuous curve either

parabolic or elliptical.
• In this type of camber the shape of the
surface is flat at the middle and steeper
towards the edges, This type of camber is
preferred for fast moving vehicles as they
have to cross the centre or crown line
frequently during overtaking operation.
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 Sloped Camber

• This type of camber consists of two

straight slopes joining at centre
• This type of camber is provided in relative
impervious pavement surface such as
cement concrete pavement

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 Composite Camber

• This type of camber consists of two

straight slopes with parabolic portion at
centre.
• This type of camber is preferred for slow
moving vehicles such as bullock drawn
iron tyred carts

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Camber or Cross Slope

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Camber or Cross Slope

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Camber or Cross Slope

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 Medians

• Medians are provided on divided multi-

lane highways to provide a separation of
opposing traffic lanes.
• Medians can also provide space for
1.Snow storage
2.Collecting surface drainage
3.Refuge for pedestrians at crosswalks

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 Medians

4. Installation of traffic control devices

5. Adding future lanes
• Median widths are always measured
between the inside edges of opposing
travel lanes
• Medians operate best when they are
highly visible during the day or night and
are at a width that provides for the
predominant usage *
 Medians

• There are three basic types

of medians:
1.Flush medians
2.Curbed (raised) medians, and
3.Depressed medians.

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 Flush Medians

• Flush medians consist of a relatively flat

paved area separating the traffic lanes
with only painted stripes on the pavement
• This type is generally used only for lower-
speed urban arterials
• Painted medians need frequent repainting
to maintain their visibility at night and
under inclement weather conditions
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 Curbed Median

• Curbed raised medians are most

commonly used on lower-speed urban
arterials
• They have the same basic advantages and
characteristics of flush medians except the
separation is more clearly defined than for
painted lines do not need frequent
repainting and are more easily seen at
night and during inclement weather *
 Depressed Median

• Depressed medians are most commonly

used for high-speed expressways,
freeways and rural arterials
• Depressed medians are uncurbed grass
areas with flat slopes drained by open
ditches

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 Depressed Median

• Normally, the widths of depressed

medians are considerably greater than for
either flush medians or raised medians

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Median

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Median

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Median

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Median

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 Pavement Surface
Characteristics

• The important characteristics of pavement

surface are:
I. Friction
II.Evenness
III.Light reflecting characteristics
IV.Drainage

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 FRICTION

• It is very important characteristics of road

surface
• Friction between the pavement surface and
the tyre is the factor which effects the
operation speed, stopping and acceleration
distances of the vehicles. Thus frictional
force is an important factor in the
acceleration and retardation ability of
vehicle *
 FRICTION

• Skid
Skid occurs when the wheels slide
without revolving or when the path
travelled along the road surface is more
than the circumferential movement of
wheels due to their rotation. On applying
the brakes, the wheels are locked fully or
partially,
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 FRICTION

If in this condition vehicle moves forward

that is known as longitudinal skid.
When vehicle moves on horizontal curves,
if the centrifugal force of the vehicle is
more than the centripetal force, then
lateral skid takes place. This is
dangerous as the vehicle goes out of
control leading to accident.
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 FRICTION

• Slip
If the wheel revolves more than its
corresponding longitudinal movement
along the road, then it is called slip.

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 FRICTION

• Factors Affecting Frictions

1.Type of pavement surface
2.Degree of dryness of pavement surface
3.Condition of tyre
4.Speed of vehicle
5.Load and tyre Pressure
6.Temperature
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FRICTION

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 Pavement Unevenness

• Smooth and even surfaces allow high

operating speed of the vehicle than rough
and uneven surface
• Pavement unevenness thus effects
operational cost, comfort and safety
• Fuel consumption, wear and tear of tyres
also increases with increase in unevenness
of surface
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Light Reflecting Characteristics

• Visibility in night driving depends very

much on the light reflecting characteristics
of the pavement surface
• The glare caused by the reflection of head
lights is considerably on wet surfaces than
on dry surfaces. At night , white or light
coloured surfaces offer good visibility but
during bright sunlight they produce glare
and strain on eyes *
 Sight Distance OR Visibility

• It is the actual distance along the road

surface at which a driver from a specified
height, above the road surface can see
obstructions, stationary or moving objects
clearly.
• Restrictions on sight distance may be
caused at horizontal curves, on vertical
curves and at intersections.
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 Sight Distance

• Sight Distance can be classified into three

categories depending upon the situation:
1.Stopping sight distance
2.Safe overtaking sight distance
3.Sight distance at intersection

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 Stopping sight distance

• It is the minimum distance required within

which a vehicle moving at design speed
can be stopped with out colliding with a
stationary object on the road surface
• The sight distance available on road to a
driver at any instance depends on features
of the road ahead, height of the drivers
eye above the road surface and height of
object above the road surface *
 Stopping sight distance

• The factors affecting SSD:

1.The speed of the vehicle
2.Efficiency of brakes
3.Total reaction time of driver
4.Longitudinal slope of the road
5.Friction (Vehicle tyre and road surface)

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 Stopping sight distance

• It is recommended that to avoid skidding

the braking force should not be more than
the frictional force b/w the wheel tyres
and road surface
• Reaction time It is the time in seconds
which a driver can take from the instant,
the object is visible to him to the instant
the brakes are effectively applied.
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 Stopping sight distance

• This time vary from driver to driver and so

many factors like speed, distance of object
and environmental conditions
• Reaction time can be divided into
perception period and break reaction time
Perception time is the time taken by an
average driver to realize a danger ahead
before actually trying to apply the brakes
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 Stopping sight distance

• The short time lag between perception of

danger and the effective application of
brakes is called the brake reaction time
• Stopping distance is depend highly on
speed of the vehicle.
• SSD = 0.28Vt + 0.01V2

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 Overtaking Sight Distance
OSD

• All the vehicles do not move at design

speed and hence necessity of overtaking
slow moving vehicles by faster ones arises
• For overtaking manoeuvre, road should be
visible sufficiently ahead of the vehicle to
be overtaken, it has to leave its own track
and use the track for traffic from opposite
direction for some distance.
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 Overtaking Sight Distance
OSD

• The distance visible to the driver of a

vehicle intending to overtake another slow
moving vehicle, without causing any
inconvenience or possibility of accident to
the traffic in the opposite direction is
called overtaking sight distance or safe
passing sight distance.

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 Overtaking Sight Distance
OSD

• Factors which effect the minimum OSD

1.Skill and efficiency of driver intending to
overtake
2.Space b/w both vehicles intending to
overtake and to be overtaken
3.Speeds of three vehicles namely vehicle
overtaking, overtaken and vehicle coming
from opposite direction.
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 Overtaking Sight Distance
OSD

4. Acceleration rate of overtaking vehicle

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 Sight Distance at Intersection

• There should be clear view across the

corners for a sufficient length, to avoid
collision of vehicles at road intersection,
particularly at uncontrolled ones.
• Longer line of sight across the corners can
be obtained by making corners rounded or
sloping or by giving a suitable set back to
the abut building at the corner.
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 Sight Distance at Intersection

• Sight distance at road intersections can be

decided according to the following
conditions
1.Suitable sight distance should be provided
2.Traffic on main road should allow free
movement and therefore, it would be the
responsibility of the driver on minor to
stop or change the speed.
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 Sight Distance at Intersection

3. Enabling the stationary vehicle to cross

the main road.
This condition occurs when vehicle enter
to the intersection from minor road is
controlled by stop sign.

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Sight Distance

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Sight Distance

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Sight Distance

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Sight Distance

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Sight Distance

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Sight Distance

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 Design Speed

• Design speed is the speed which can be

allowed on a road without risking safety
conditions
• Design Speed depends on
1.Type of road
2.Importance of road
3.Surface characteristics of the road

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 Design Speed

4. Type of traffic
5. Intensity of traffic
6. Road geometry
7. Topography of Area

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Design Speed

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 SUPER ELEVATION

• When a vehicle passes from a straight to a

curved path or in other words when a
vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve
following two forces act on the vehicle:
1.Centrifugal Force
2.Weight of the vehicle

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 SUPER ELEVATION

1. Centrifugal Force
• The centrifugal force is a function of the
speed of the moving vehicle. P=Wv2/(gR)
• It always acts at centre of gravity of
vehicle. Its direction always tends to out-
side, i.e., it always tends to push the
vehicle out of track

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 SUPER ELEVATION

• To counter act this tendency, outer edge

of road is raised above the inner edge
• This rise of outer edge is called super
elevation or cant or banking.
• Thus super elevation e is the ratio of the
height of outer edge with respect to
horizontal width.

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SUPER ELEVATION

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 SUPER ELEVATION

• Thus e= tanθ, In practice the value of θ is

kept 40 or slope of 1 in 15 with horizontal.
• Total height of outer edges w.r.t. inner
edge E = e X width of road
= e.B.

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 SUPER ELEVATION

• The centrifugal force P= Wv2/(gR)

W= weight of vehicle
v = velocity of vehicle
R= Radius of circular curve
P = Centrifugal force
g = acceleration due to gravity

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 SUPER ELEVATION

➢Effect of centrifugal force

1. Tendency to overturn the vehicle.
2.Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally.
➢ Stability Condition Against Overturning
Let us consider a vehicle moving on
horizontal curve. Forces acting on the
vehicle are

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 SUPER ELEVATION

I. Centrifugal force P acting outward at C.G

II. Weight W acting downward at C.G

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 SUPER ELEVATION

• Stability Conditions Against Overturning

Let h be the height of C.G. of the vehicle
above the road level. The overturning
moment due to centrifugal force
= Pxh
The resisting moment = W x b/2 where b
is the centre to centre distance of wheels
of vehicle
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 SUPER ELEVATION

• For equilibrium P x h = W x b /2
P/W= B/(2h)
When the centrifugal ratio, i.e., P/W is equal
to b/(2h) there is danger of overturning
Thus to avoid overturning, centrifugal ratio
should always be less than b/(2h)
As P/W=v2/(gR) So v2/(gR) < b/(2h)

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 SUPER ELEVATION

• Thus to avoid overturning , h should be as

small as possible.
• Only due to this reason the modern cars
have low centre of gravity

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 SUPER ELEVATION

• Stability Conditions Against Skidding

The lateral thrust P= Wv2/(g.R) is resisted by
the frictional between tire and pavement
surfaces.
If the lateral resisting friction is less than the
central force p, then skid will occur
For Equilibrium P= Maximum lateral friction
developed

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 SUPER ELEVATION

P= Fa +Fb
= f(Ra + Rb)
= fW
Thus when the centrifugal ratio, attains the
value equal to the lateral coefficient of
friction, there is danger of lateral skidding
If f<b/(2h) skidding would occur
If f> b/(2h) overturning at outer edge would
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occur
 SUPER ELEVATION

• Minimum Super elevation

If the calculated value of super elevation is
equal to or less than the camber value,
minimum super elevation to be provided,
should be equal to camber slope, to effect
the effective drainage of the road surface.
In this case crown is eliminated and a
uniform transverse slope equal to camber
is maintained from outer edge to inner. *
 SUPER ELEVATION

In case of horizontal curves having large

radius, value of centrifugal force shall be
nominal, and hence, section of road is
retained as normal section and no super
elevation is provided.
In such condition outer half of road surface
shall have negative super elevation but
sum of this –ve e and centrifugal force will
be considerably less than friction *
 SUPER ELEVATION

• Maximum Super elevation

In the mixed traffic conditions, different
vehicles move with wide range of speed
and hence design of super elevation under
such conditions become a complex
problem.
Super elevation if provided according to
maximum design speed , may provide
easy conditions for fast moving traffic, *
 SUPER ELEVATION

but causes lot of inconvenient to slow

moving traffic and vice versa.
To strike a balance between two extreme
conditions, and also by taking certain
other factors into consideration, it is
recommended that the super elevation
should be provided, to fully contract the
centrifugal force according to 75% of
design speed *
 SUPER ELEVATION

The limitation of maximum Super elevation

should be 1 in 15
If calculated value of super elevation as per
75% of design speed is less than limiting
value of 1/15 or 0.067 the full value of
super elevation is provided.
But if this value exceeds limiting value of
1/15 or 0.067, provide max. super
elevation equal to 1/15 *
 Gradient

• The rate of rise or fall of road surface

along its length with respect of horizontal
distance is termed as gradient.
• It may also be defined as longitudinal
slope in the road pavement.
• A rising or ascending gradient is denoted
by plus (+) sign while descending gradient
by negative (-) sign.
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 Gradient

• Gradient is expressed as a ratio of 1 in x

(one unit vertical to x units horizontal)
and also sometimes as percentage. 1 in 20
gradient shows 1 m rise or fall of road
level in 20 m horizontal distance.
• The angle which measures the change of
direction at the intersection of the two
grade lines is called DEVIATION ANGLE
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 Gradient

• Deviation angle is denoted by N which is

equal to the algebraic difference between
two grades.
• Gradient in the road should not be very
steep. Steep grades are not only difficult
to climb but also increase the operational
cost of vehicle. Engineers should try to
provide as easy a gradient as possible.
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 Horizontal Curve Radius

• Horizontal Curve
When highway changes its direction in
horizontal plan. A horizontal curve has to
be used to bring about this change.
For certain speed of vehicle the centrifugal
force depend on the radius of the
horizontal curve.

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 Horizontal Curve

In order to keep the centrifugal ratio low,

the radius of curve has to be
correspondingly increased. It has already
been provided in super elevation that
centrifugal force is counteract by the
combined effects of super elevation and
lateral friction i.e.
e + µ = v2/(gR)
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 Horizontal Curve

Where e= the super elevation,

µ= coefficient of lateral friction
v = speed of vehicle in m/sec
V = speed of vehicle in Km/hour
R = Radius of curve in metres
The ratio of maximum allowable super
elevation has been fixed 1 in 15 about 7%
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 Horizontal Curve

Design coefficient of friction µ is taken as

0.15
Hence e + µ = 0.067 + 0.15 = v2/(gR)
=V2/127 R
If the design speed of highway is decided ,
then minimum radius to be adopted can
be determined from this relationship

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 Horizontal Curve

Thus R=v2/(e+µ) = V2/(127R)

• When minimum design speed V’ Km/h is
adopted in the formula, the absolute
minimum radius of horizontal curve Rmin
is obtained. If V is ruling design speed,
the ruling minimum radius of horizontal
curve is obtained by above equation

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 Extra width of road at Horizontal
curve

• On horizontal curves, increased

carriageway width is provided than the
normal width on straight reaches.
• The increased width is called the extra
widening of the pavement .
• Its value depends upon the sharpness of
the curve. For sharper curves extra width
to be provided shall be more.
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 Extra width of road at Horizontal
curve

• Reasons of providing extra width of

pavement at horizontal curves
I. Drivers have a tendency to keep away
from the edge of the carriageway, while
driving on curve.
II.The clearance between the vehicles,
crossing or passing each other over
horizontal curve, kept more that on
straight road due to psychological effect *
 Extra width of road at Horizontal
curve

III. While negotiating a horizontal curve the

front steering wheels are turned and thus
more space of road is occupied by the
vehicle
IV. While travelling on horizontal curve, rear
wheel do not trace the same path as the
front steering wheels do. This is called off
tracking, so more width of road is
required for vehicle. *
 Extra width of road at Horizontal
curve

• V. At more than designed speed if super

elevation and lateral friction can not be
counter act the centrifugal force fully. Out
ward skidding of rear wheels may occur
thus more width of road is covered. This
condition occur at very high speed.
• VI. At start of curves, drivers has a
tendency to follow outer edge of
pavement to have *
 Extra width of road at Horizontal
curve

to have better visibility and large radius

curved path
VII. Trailer units require even large extra
width at curves
Out of all the points listed above, first two
points come under psychological effect
By IRC recommendations psychological
widening as
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 Extra width of road at Horizontal
curve

Ws = V/(9.5sqrt®)
Where V is design speed in km/hr
Mechanical widening
Wm= l2/(2R) where l is longest vehicle base
in meters for more than one lanes =
l2/(2B)
We= Ws + Wm

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 Horizontal Transition curve

• Transition curve is such a curve whose

radius changes from infinity to some finite
value or between two finite values.
• This curve is also called easement curve
• This curve is introduced between straight
road and starting point of simple circular
curve.

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 Horizontal Transition curve

• As its radius gradually decreases to

definite value equal to the radius of simple
circular curve , centrifugal force is also
developed gradually and passengers in a
vehicle do not feel any inconvenience.

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 Horizontal Transition curve

• Objects to providing transition curve are

I. To obtain gradual and easy transformation
from straight to circular curve and from
circular curve to the straight roads
II.To obtain a gradual increase of curvature
from zero at the tangent point , to that of
circular curve at their junction point

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 Horizontal Transition curve

III.To obtain a gradual increase of extra

widening from zero at tangent point to a
specific value at junction point with the
circular curve. ADVANTAGES
Transition curve is introduced to have a
smooth change of direction of a vehicle
from straight to the curved path and
thus, avoid jerks add comfort to
passengers *
 Horizontal Transition curve

• To avoid shock and inconvenience to the

passengers.
Transition curve should satisfy the following
conditions
I. It should meet straight and simple circular
curve tangentially
II.Rate of increase of curvature and super
elevation should be same
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 Horizontal Transition curve

III.It should have the radius of curvature

equal to that of circular curve at their
junction point and infinite at junction
point with the straight road.
Types of Transition curve
1. Lemniscates
2. Spiral
3. Cubic parabolic
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 Horizontal Transition curve

• Types of Transition Curves

• Clothoid or spiral – the one that most
commonly used
• Lemniscates – used for large deflection
angles on high speed roads
• Cubic Parabola
Unsuitable for large deflection angles

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Horizontal Transition curve

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 Vertical Curve

• In vertical alignment of the highway when

two different or contrary gradients meet,
they are connected by a curve to
smoothen out the vertical profile. These
curves are known as vertical curves.
• The vertical curves are provided to
ensure gradual change in the grade and to
avoid abrupt change of grade at apex or
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 Vertical Curve

• To ensure smooth and gradual change in

the grade at apex to provide case for the
fast moving vehicle.
• Objectives of Vertical curve
I. To obtain adequate visibility and safe
driving.
II.The secure comfort to the passengers.

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 Vertical Curve

• Types of Vertical Curves

I. Summit curves
II.Valley Curves
Summit Curve
When the convexity of the curve is upward,
it is called summit curve. This occur when
ascending gradient intersects descending
gradient or
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 Vertical Curve

When ascending gradient meet another

ascending gradient or ascending gradient
meets a horizontal gradient.

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 Vertical Curve

• Length of Summit Curve

• Generally for summit curve parabolic
curves are adopted whose equation is
given by
• Y=x2/a where a = 2L/N
• L= Length of curve
• N= Deviation angle in radians

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 Vertical Curve

• The length of summit curve is governed

by stopping sight distance and over taking
distances separately. But curves with
greater lengths are aesthetically better. In
deciding the length on the basis of
stopping sight distance two cases may
arises.

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 Vertical Curve

I. When the length is greater than stopping

sight distance.
II. When the length is less than stopping
sight distance
When L>stopping site distance
L=NS2/((sqrt(2H) + sqrt(2h))2

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 Vertical Curve

L=length of parabolic curve in meter

S= Stopping site distance
N= Deviation angle in radian
H= Height of drivers eye level above surface
of pavement in meters
h = height of object above pavement
surface

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 Vertical Curve

II. When L< Stopping site distance

L=2S-(sqrt(2H)+sqrt(2h))2 +
(sqrt(2h)2)/N
According to the over taking site distance
I. L>overtaking site distance then
L=NS2/(8H)
II. L< overtaking sight distance, L=2S-
8H/N
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 Vertical Curve

Valley Curves: When the convexity of the

curve is downward, the curve is called as
a valley curve. Valley curve is formed (i)
when a descending gradient intersects an
ascending gradient (ii) When a descending
gradient meets an other descending
gradient (iii) When descending gradient
joints a horizontal path.
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 Vertical Curve

• In valley curves the maximum deflection

takes place in case (i). In valley curves
there is no sight distance problem in day
light, but at night the sight distance gets
reduced.
• In the design of valley curves the comfort
to passengers is the most important
factor.
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 Vertical Curve

• The lowest point is decided on the

drainage consideration.
• The best shape of valley curve is a
transition curve for gradually introducing
and increasing the centrifugal force acting
downwards.

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Vertical Curve

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• Superelevation.htm