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Digestive system

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01kpt6c
Deborah Leetham 2013
Learning outcomes

•Identify the major organs of the digestive


system
•List the major functions of the digestive
system
•Describe the main anatomical features of the
digestive system
•Describe their functions in the digestive
process
Introduction - Some facts

•The digestive system is 10 metres in length


and travels the length of the body
•Begins at the mouth, through the thoracic,
abdominal and pelvic cavities and ends at the
anus
•The digestive system has one major function:
to convert food eaten into a form utilised by
the cells for energy
Gross anatomy

•Mouth
•Oesophagus
•Stomach
•Small intestine
•Large intestine
•Liver
•Gall bladder
•Pancreas
Structure of the digestive tract
There are 4 layers of tissues or tunicas which
exist throughout the length of the digestive tract
from the oesophagus to the anus
Mucosa is the innermost layer which secretes
mucus to protect the digestive system from wear
and tear
Submucosa is thick layer of connective tissue
containing blood vessels and lymph glands and
nerve supply (meissnerss plexus)
Muscularis layers of smooth muscle containing
blood and lymph nodes and the myenteric plexus a
network of nerves
Lets break it down!

Diagram Human mouth


Mouth is where the process of digestion takes
place.
Lips and cheeks hold food in the mouth while
teeth tear and grind the food. This is called
mastication.
The tongue is a large voluntary muscle
containing taste buds (papillae) and nerve
endings for the sense of taste.
The palate forms the roof of the mouth and
consists of the hard and soft palate.
Three pairs of Salivary glands produce
saliva containing salivary amylase
responsible to break down starch.
Swallowing or degulation

• Food is propelled
swallowing from the peristalsis

mouth into the oesophagus


and the food bolus is moved
by peristalsis into the
stomach. This is a wave of
muscle contraction used to
churn and mechanically
digest food.
What happens next?
• The food enters the cardiac region of
the stomach
• The food bolus is converted to
chyme to enter the small intestine
from the pyrlorus
• The cardiac sphincter relaxes to let
food in and pyloric sphincter relaxes
to allow food to exit
Phase controlling gastric juice secretions

• Cephalic stage: Expectation and preparation for food, induces


contractions and increases gastric juice secretion
• Gastric stage: Gastric motility and increase in gastric juice production
• Intestinal phase: food products move into the duodenum resulting in
reduced gastric motility and gastric secretion
How does this happen?
• The stomach is triggered to expect food from the special senses
• When food enters the stomach the hormone gastrin in the blood stream
stimulates gastric juice production
• Hydrochloric acid production changes the ph of the stomach which trigger
stretch receptors to cause the stomach to distend
• Acidic chyme moves into the duodenum where the hormones secretin and
cholycystokinin reduce the production of gastric juice and gastric mobility
• Enzyme pepsin begins to break down proteins
• The sight and smell of food stimulates the secretion of gastric juices and the
flow of events
Small intestine
• The small intestine is about 6 metres
long and is divided into three parts:
• Duodenum
• Jejunum
• Ileum
The primary function of the
small intestine is the
absorption of nutrients
Food moves along the small
intestine by a process of
segmentation which occurs
slowly to allow maximum
absorption.
Digestive process

• Protein digesting enzymes (peptidases)


• Fat digesting enzymes (lipases)
• Nucleic acid digesting enzymes (nucleases)
• Carbohydrate digesting enzymes (disaccharidases)
• Released into the small intestine from the pancreas
How does this happen?

• Permanent circular folds in the


mucosa slow down the transit of
digestive products allowing time
for absorption
• Four types of cells in the
mucosa of the small intestine
aid digestion
4 types of cells in the mucosa of the
small intestine: absorptive cells
producing enzymes and absorbs
digested foods
Goblet cells secret mucus for protection
Enteroendochrine cells produce
regulatory hormones (secretin and
cholecystokinin
Paneth cells produce lysozyme to
protect against pathogens
• Finger like villi on the surface of
the mucosa allow nutrients to
be absorbed into blood stream
• In the centre of the villae is a
capillary bed and a lacteal
(lymph capillary) which allows
absorption to occur
Large intestine

• Food residue enters the caecum


from the ileum
• The primary function is to
absorb water and turn food
residue into faeces
• The large intestine absorbs
vitamins and minerals
electrolytes and some drugs
• Food residue transit is between
24-48 hours
Once the food residue has entered the large
intestine it cannot backflow into the ileum due
to the ileo-ceacal valve
The large intestine produces mucus via the
goblet cells to aid the passage of faeces and
guard against injury.
As faeces enters the rectum a defecation
reflex is initiated by the stretching of the rectal
walls. The valsalva manoevre (contraction of
the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm)
creates intra-abdominal pressure and assists
in the process of defecation
So......where does it all happen?
Its not as complicated as it looks!
Digestive process

• Remember: the digestive process is influenced and controlled by a


number of hormones and enzymes.
• Hormones: Regulate biochemical reactions
• Enzymes: Aid in chemical digestion of food products
Hormones in digestion

hormone origin target action stimulus


gastrin stomach stomach Increases secretion Presence of
of hydrochloric protein in the
acid and gastric stomach
emptying
secretin duodenum Stomach Inhibits gastric Acid and fatty
gland secretion chyme in the
gastric mobility duodenum
Increases
Pancreas pancreatic juice
secretion
promotes
liver cholystokinin
action
Increase bile
secretion
cholecystokinin duodenum Pancreas Increase pancreatic Chyme in the
juice secretion duodenum
Gall bladder Stimulate
contraction
Hepatopancreatic relaxes
Digestive enzymes

enzyme source target products

amylase Salivary glands starch sugars

Maltase, sucrase, lactase Small intestine sugars Simple sugars

lipase pancreas fats Fatty acids

Pepsin Stomach Proteins simple proteins


Trypsin Pancreas Proteins Simple proteins
peptidases Small intestine proteins Amino acids
nucleases pancreas Nucleic acid Nitrogen bases and
simple simple sugars
What about the liver, pancreas and gall
bladder?
• The liver has a left and right
lobe and smaller caudate and
quadrate lobes
• The liver has 3 functional roles:
• Metabolic regulation
• Haematological regulation
• Bile production
• The liver has over 200 known
functions!
Metabolic: regulating the composition of circulating
blood as all blood leaving the digestive tract flows
through the liver before reaching general circulation.
Liver cells (hepatocytes) extract nutrients and toxins
and monitor and adjust circulating levels of organic
nutrients.
Excesses are removed and stored and deficiencies
are corrected. Example is removing glucose when
levels are high and storing as glycogen.
Haematological: receives 25% of cardiac output.
Plasma proteins synthesised and red blood cells
destroyed.
bile: required for the digestion and absorption of
fats. Consists of bilirubin and bile salts and water
There is more

gallbladder pancreas
• Stores bile • Consists of Head, body and tail
• Secretes bile into the • The cells of the pancreas
duodenum under the produce the hormones insulin
stimulation of cholystokinin via and glucagon
the bile duct • Produces enzymes which are
• This happens when chyme released into the duodenum to
enters the duodenum aid digestion
To round up

• This is an introduction to the digestive system

• Locate anatomy and physiology books to read and add to your


knowledge base about digestion

• We use nutrients from our food to maintain internal homeostasis- eat


well!
Reading list

• Clancy, J. & McVicar, A. (2009) Physiology and anatomy for


nurses and healthcare practitioners. 3rd Edn. London:
Hodder Arnold.
• Hendry, C. Farley, A. McLafferty, E Johnstone, C. (2014) ‘The
digestive system: part 2’, Nursing Standard, 28 (25), pp. 37-
44
• Johnstone, C. Hendry, C. Farley, A. & McLafferty, E. (2014)
‘The digestive system: part 1’, Nursing Standard, 28 (24), pp.
37-45
• Peate, I. & Muralitharan, N (2011) Fundamentals of anatomy
and physiology for student nurses. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

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