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MS. MEDELYN SALCEDO LACUNSAY, RC., MSCRIM.

INSTRUCTOR
 Nominal Definition
- Philosophy comes from Greek word
“philo” which means friend and “sophia”
which means wisdom. It means “the love of
wisdom” or a “friend of wisdom”.

 Real Definition
- Philosophy is the science of all exist (of
beings) in their ultimate cause through the
aid of the human intellect alone.
 It is a science - a systematic body of organized
methods tried and true knowledge which is
concerned with rectituted of reasoning.

 It is an art – because argument is logic is done


beautifully with habitual validity, ease, clarity,
correctness, objectivity and certainty.

 Of correct thinking - because it conforms to the


rules of correctness, in an argument, premises
have sufficient grounds as basis of conclusion.
 Philosophy and Science are alike.
 They are both interested in the knowledge.
 Both of them are fields on inquiry and
investigation.
 Both seek to ask questions and determine
answers to these questions.
Philosophy Science
- seeks ultimate knowledge - Seeks knowledge of facts
- Takes full cognizance in the - Seeks to determine facts and
findings facts are its end products.
- Begins its work with these facts
- It makes use of them
- It is significance of the facts,
which interest a person as a
genuine philosopher.
- He believes that he can aid man
by helping him determine the
significance of facts.
- The method of Philosophy involve
interpretation and explanation of
the ultimate relation and meaning
of the facts.
 In their ultimate cause –because it asks and
answers only facts and proximate causes but
also the deepest causes of things.
- Its task is to give answers not only to
the question “what” but most importantly is the
question “why”.

Through the aid of the human intellect alone


– because philosophy uses natural reason and
not Divine Revelation of the recourse to the
Bible.
- It is the product of one’s own thinking and
not of imagination or fantasy.
Arts Philosophy
- The artist’s treatment of beauty -The philosopher’s is theoretical
is actual
- The artists enjoy and appreciate, - Philosophers intellectualize
express and create. artistic experience.

Note:

Their chief task is to parallel the experience of


beauty with an intellectual understanding of its
Nature.
 The study of philosophy has a value and effects
upon the lives of those who study it.

 Philosophy is to be studied, but not for the sake


of finding the definite answers to its questions,
since no definite answer can, as a rule, be known
to be true.

 Rather, it is studied for the sake of the question


themselves, because these questions enlarge our
conception of what is possible and thus enrich
our intellectual imagination.
1. Pure Philosophy or Speculative Philosophy
 When “BEING” is considered in Itself

a. Metaphysics/Ontology (being in its most general


form) – the study of being as a being while taking
into consideration the essence and existence are
constitute of being.
- Metaphysics is the study of many different topics but
they all revolve around the core question of what we
are and what our purpose is.
Example:
 Existence and Reality

 Believe it or not, the question of whether or not we


really exist was one of the first questions asked in
metaphysics. Yoda once said we are 'luminous
beings.' Many religions believe that everything we
are is in our souls and that our bodies are nothing
more than shells holding our souls inside.
2. Cosmology (being in the non living world) – the
philosophical study of the material world with regards
to its order in the universe.
- the scientific study of the form, content, organization, and
evolution of the universe

Example:
3. Theodicy (highest in its highest form) – the
philosophical stud of God with consideration to its
nature and existence as absolute.

Example:
4. Anthropology (being with its body and soul) – the
philosophical study of man with regard to the union
between the body and soul.

Example:
5. Rational Psychology (being with its soul) – the
philosophical study of immaterial soul and its faculties
with consideration to its as the life principle of every
living being.

Example:
2. When “Being” is considered in Relation to Man.

a. Logic (considering the procedure of man’s


thought) – the science and the art of correct
thinking.
b. Epistemology (value of our thought) – the
philosophical study of human knowledge with
regard to certainty and truth.
c. Ethics (considering man’s will) – the
philosophical study of the morality of the
human act that distinguishes good from evil
and right from wrong.
 The results of Pure Philosophy are applied to
special topic and problems in the different aspects
of man’s life such as education, society, history,
business, religion, and others.
 Some branches:

1. Philosophy of Man – the inquiry into man as a


person.
2. Social Philosophy – the study of the relationship
between man and society.
3. Philosophy of Religion – the study of man’s
relationship with God.
4. Axiology – the study of man’s value.
5. Aesthetics – the study of beauty and perfection.

6. Oriental Philosophy – the study of Oriental ways of


life and mind.

7. Philosophy of Education – the philosophical


approach to teaching and learning processes.
 What is Logic?

 Nominal Definition
Logic – comes from the Greek word “logos”, which
means thought, word, speech or science.

 Real Definition
◦ Logic - is order and consistency.
 - it is the science of those principles, laws and
methods which the mind of man follow in its
thinking for secure and accurate attainment of truth.
 is the science and art of correct thinking.
 It is a science, because it is a body of organized
methods of tried and true knowledge which is
concerned with the rectitude of reasoning.

 It is an art, because argument in logic is done


beautifully with habitual validity, ease, clarity,
correctness, objectivity and certainty.

 Of correct thinking, because it conforms to the


rules of correctness : in an argument, premises
have sufficient grounds as basis for conclusion.
 Logic deals with the acts of the mind –
mental process THINKING.
 Most of the time, it is associated with some
mental process like memorizing, simple
recall and a like.
 Others may say that imagining and
daydreaming are thinking, but these are not
the kind that we consider in logic.
 According to Corazon Cruz (1995), there are
two criteria for mental process to be
considered in thinking:

 When the Objective is Truth


Examples: analysis, definition and classification

 When the Truth we have become the nucleus


for further knowledge
Example: criticism (as books, movies and people),
comparison, contrast, synthesis and generalization and
the like.
 Thinking is the process of drawing out conclusions
from previously known data. We also called it
reasoning or inference.

 Correct Thinking - is a process of thinking or


reasoning that follows the right procedure.

- The reasoning may not always be true.


- Logic does not investigate the truth as the certainty of the
data but rather focuses on the correct operation of
thinking.
- Correct Thinking and true knowledge are two different
things
True Knowledge – deals with knowledge
which conforms to reality.

Examples:

1. Girls are sweet


Rosette is sweet
Rosette is a girl ------ correct and true

2. All animals are rational


Dogs are animals
Dogs are rational ------correct and true
 Logic deals with reasoning. T
 The soundness of reasoning is the one that is
important.
 The first concern of logic is validity.
 It leads man in the truth from the known
towards the unknown and from easiest
towards the most difficult.
 An argument is sound when it is both valid
and true.
Examples:
All plants need water.
All flowers are plants.
Therefore, flowers need water.

Consider the argument which follows:


All lawyers are honest.
Some defenders of our rights are lawyers
Therefore, some defenders of our rights are
honest.
Valid Argument – is one whose premises, if
they are assumed to be true, entail this
conclusion.
 Since not all lawyers are honest, the
proposition is not true.

Proposition - is true when it describes an


actual state of affairs. Therefore, even
though the inference is valid, it is sound,
because it is not both valid and true.
 In contrast, Logic is generally interested
only in the correctness or validity of
reasoning.
 It is concerned with truth or falsify of the
premises or of conclusion.
 Consider the following arguments:

Examples:
All men are rational beings
Armand is a man
Therefore, Armand is a national being
All animals are rational
Dogs are rational
Therefore, dogs are animals

All plants grow


Ice factory is a plant
Therefore, ice factory grows

 Of all the above mentioned inferences, only the


first one is sound, the second pone is only a
minor premise, which are false while the third
one has a major premise and a conclusion,
which are both false.
 Valid Inferences – they satisfy the
requirements of a correct or valid reference.

 The formal object if Logic is the


correctness or validity of reasoning.
 It refers to the inner consistency of the
reasoning process.
 For reasoning, to achieve consistency, it
should be in accordance with the principles
and laws which logic teaches.
1. It develops the habit of clear thinking.

 Logic is a course in analysis.


 It teaches us how to think and reason about
anything that we hear, say and read.
 It is only when we learn to think clearly or
when others commit mistakes or errors that
we can pinpoint such errors and can correct
them.
2. It is a guide in the process of drawing
conclusions.

 In our daily lives, we experienced a lot of things


and it is within those that we live.
 Sometimes, we make wrong decisions and
conclusions.
 The knowledge of logic will instruct us to
understand more because most of the confusions
is due to carelessness in the assignment of
meaning to words.
 Because of logic, we become self- confident when
we communicate with each other.
3. It emphasizes the importance of definition.

 One of the important requirements of effective


reasoning is precision in the use of terms.
 Logic train us in the art of debate and argument.
 It is very important in reasoning that we know
how to use the terms so that confusion can be
avoided in the assignment of meanings to the
terms that we used.
 Clarity and precision in the use of terms is one of
the most important requirements of logical
thinking.
4. It helps us to interpret facts adequately.

 Proper and accurate interpretation of facts is


very important in the attainment of truth.
 The study of logic will train us in analyzing,
classifying, defining, describing, précising
and interpreting facts.
 These facts that are based on the science of
Logic are utilized in the art of argumentation
or in the art of rhetoric.
5. It cultivates the habit of looking for the
assumptions presupposed in reasoning.

 Examination of the causes of incorrect


reasoning puts us on guard against errors
both in our thinking and in the thinking of
others.
 Many people are often confused be delicate
and unnoticeable arguments.
6. It trains us in the technique in determining
implications.

 The study of Logic provides training that will


develop our ability to perceive implications
and will equip us with techniques in
determining assumptions.
7. It helps us to detect fallacies, avoid self-
deception or paralogisms and combat
sophisms.

 It helps us to detect illogical reasoning.


 Every normal person has the gift of common
sense or natural logic, but common sense
must be honed and developed in order to
transform into a fitting instrument of
philosophical thinking.
8. It helps us persuade and convince others.

 No man live for himself alone.


 To love ourselves is to acknowledge and to
share life with others.
 Life usually a continuous process of winning
people to our way of thinking and thus to our
way of living.
 It trains us in the various methods of
producing a firm belief in the thinking of
othets.
9. It stimulates scientific thinking and love of
truth.

 All discipline requires clear, concise and orderly


reasoning.
 Logic is an important tool for understanding
other fields of sciences.
 The aim of logic is truth, and by truth we mean
absolute truth.
 To simplify the truth of a statement or an
argument.
 it seeks a statement or an argument of quality
which can assert itself for acceotance.
10. It familiarizes us with terminology and
problem in philosophy.

 Everyone is beset with problems regarding the


whys, hows, and whats a thing.
 The curiosity includes the relationship
between things as well as on things
themselves.
 Everyone thinks because thinking is a pathway
to philosophy.
1. Based on the Form and Content

a. Formal Logic – is concerned with the aspect


of form, its structure, correctness, sequence
and the following of the rules.
- It looks at whether there is conformity with the
given standards or with existing rules of Logic.

Example:
Peter is a student.

- From this we can ask: what is the subject? The verb?


The predicate? Our concern is how it is structured
or built to create a sound reasoning.
b. Material Logic – is concerned with the
subject matter, content or truth.
- It looks at whether there is conformity
with reality.

Example: Peter is a man.

- From this example we can ask: is Peter


really a man as he exists in reality? If so,
then our statement is true.
2. Based on the Process of Thinking

a. Deductive Logic – is one which the


premises flow logically into conclusion.
- It is from universal to particular or as
McCall says, “from more to the less
universal by a way of a middle term”.

Example: All Filipino are industrious (general)


Peter is a Filipino. (particular)
Therefore, Peter is industrious. (particular)
b. Inductive Logic – is one in which the
argument flows from specific to general or
particular to universal.
- Inductive Logic implies a sense of
improbability.
- As Copi says, “may provide some
evidences of truth”.

Example: This chalk falls, this book falls, this


pen falls and this eraser falls.
Therefore, all bodily objects fall.
 Simple Apprehension – is the process
through which the mind grasps the
objective reality as it is outside of the
mind.
- When something is grasped, an idea or
concept is formed which is then
expressed through the use of terms.

Example: man, mortal, Peter


 Judgment – is the process through which
the mind can assert or deny something.
- The second process can be achieved only
after having ideas because it is the idea that
are put together in order to come up with
judgment.
- The expressions of judgment are called
“propositions” .

Example: Every man is mortal


Peter is a man.
 Reasoning – is the process through which
the mind arrives at a conclusion from
previously possessed judgments.
 It draws out new propositions from
premises.
 We also call this Inference. This is
expressed through syllogism.

Example: Every man is mortal


But, Peter is a man.
Therefore, Peter is mortal.
 What is language?
 Informative
 Expressive
 Directive
 Multiplicity of Language
 According to Corazon L Cruz “Music
may be language of the soul, but stuff
with which we live out our daily life is
words”.

 According to Irving Copi (1978) lists


three basic functions of language. These
are informative, expressive and directive
which are based on the three integral
parts of man: head, heart and guts.
 This is the common function of the
language wherein we inform about
things we know and ask about things we
do not know yet.
 Informative discourse – detailed
information about different ideas and
principles we have to reflect on and think
about.
 On Logic, we see this function at work in
propositions and arguments, where
something is either denied or affirmed.
 This kind of discourse is best
illustrated in poetry where emotions
and attitudes are expressed
beautifully.
 Ben Johnson’s “Song to Celia” is
replete with beautiful emotion- laden
lines such as:
“Drink to me with thine eyes and I will
pledge with mine or leave a kiss but in
the cup and I’ll not look for wine”.
 According to Cop (1978) – expressive
discourse is used either to express the
speaker’s feelings or evoke certain
feelings on the part of the author. Of
course it is may do both.
 This function of language is most easily
seen in commands or requests. It is that
which lets go or prevents an action to be
done.
 Example: Kindly arrange all the
requirements before leaving.
 One can say that this is either true or
false. Whether the command or request
is obeyed or not is irrelevant to its truth-
value, which is nonexistent in the first
place.
 According to William Butler Yeats that
“Think like a wise man but communicate
in the language of the people”.
 Another school of thought advances a
distinct set of language functions:
1. Heuristic – for teaching/giving
instruction.
2. Imaginative – for literary expressions.
3. Ideational- for expressing one’s
ideology.
4. Manipulative – for others to make
things done.
 What is concept?
 Types of Concepts
 What is Term?
 Types of Terms
 Properties of Terms
 What does Supposition Mean?
 What does Definition Mean?
 What is concept?

 A concept is representation of an object by


the intellect through which man
comprehends a thing.
 It is also considered a mental image of an
object or an idea about something.
 Ideas are formed by simple apprehension
which may be in the form of following
operations as mentioned by Alviar,.et.at//
(1995)
 It is the mental act by which the mind fixes
its considered upon one particular object
after having sensed it.

 Example: A driver stops his car when he


sees that the red light is on.
 It is a mental act by which the mind studies
the physical characteristics or the
individualizing notes of the particular object
with regard to color, size, style, material,
then goes of the purpose of the object.

 Example: When he goes to the mall to buy


a pair of shoes or a dress, the process of
abstraction is used.
 It is a mental act of becoming aware of
itself, of its act or of its state so as to look
of these things objectively.
 It is a mental act comparing the likeness
and differences between objects belonging
to the different essences and classes.

Example: Leg of a woman and leg on a table.


 It is a mental act by which the mind notices
the likeness and differences in the objective
having the same essence or belonging to
the same class.

 Example: Pedro and Puppie


 It is a mental act by which the mind gives
direct attention to the essentials or the
basic similarities of an idea.

 Example: Man is a living organism who is


sentient and rational.
 It is an act by which the mind puts together
two or more ideas to form a single ideas.

 Example: Blue Water


1. Based on Intention

a. First Intention Concept – th

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