University of Northern Border University

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering

CHE 332 – Heat Transfer

Lecture notes

Chapter 1

Introduction: conservation of energy

Prepared by : Dr. Farooq Ahmad

Based on:

“Introduction to Heat Transfer”

Incropera, DeWitt, Bergman, and Lavine,
5th Edition, John Willey and Sons, 2007.

1st semester 2018-2019

 Course Outline

Basic laws of heat transfer; steady state heat

conduction, heat
generation, and extended surfaces; unsteady and
multidimensional
conduction; analytical, graphical, and numerical
solutions; external and
internal forced convection; boundary layer theory;
free convection,
similarity and integral solutions; Analogy between
momentum and heat
transfer. Heat transfer applications.
 Geankoplis, C. J. Transport Processes and Unit
Operations, 4th Edition. Prentice-Hall, 2003.
(Chapter on Heat Transfer)

REFERECES
 McCabe W. L., Smith, J. P., and Harriott, P. Unit
Operations of Chemical Engineering, 7th Edition.
McGraw-Hill, 2005. (Section on Heat Transfer)
 Incropera, F. P., Dewitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L., and
Lavine, A. S. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer,
6th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
 Dutta, B. K. Heat Transfer, Principles and Applications.
Prentice-Hall of India, 2001.
 Holman, J. P. Heat Transfer, 10th Ed., McGraw Hill, 2009.
• Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature difference.

Heat Amount of thermal energy transferred Q J

over a time interval  t  0

Heat Rate Thermal energy transfer per unit time q W

Heat Flux Thermal energy transfer per unit time and q” W/m2
surface area

• Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation, vibration and
electronic states of the atoms and molecules that comprise matter. It
represents the cumulative effect of microscopic activities and is directly
linked to the temperature of matter.

U J
u J/kg
 Course Learning Outcome
CLO#1:
Calculate temperature and heat flux in one and two dimensional conduction in steady
and unsteady conduction
CLO#2:
Illustrate heat transfer by convection and use boundary layer theory to determine velocity
and temperature profile in external and internal flows for both developing and fully
developed regions
CLO#3: Show convection and heat transfer processes with phase change
CLO# 4: Use the LMTD method and the effectiveness-NTU method to analyze heat
transfer rates in heat exchangers and understand which method to choose for a given
problem
CLO# 5: Select and design of heat exchanger
CLO#6: Select and design of waste heat recovery units
 Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due to

the random motion of its constituent atoms, molecules and /or
electrons.
Requires a medium
Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined influence of motion for fluid flow
over a surface.
Requires a medium
Radiation: Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes in the electron
configurations of its atoms or molecules and is transported as
electromagnetic waves (or photons).
Does not require a medium
 Heat Transfer Rates
Conduction:
General (vector) form of Fourier’s Law:

q    k T

Heat flux Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient

W/m 2
W/m  K °C/m or K/m
Application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a
plane wall of constant thermal conductivity:

dT T T
qx  k  k 2 1
dx L
T1  T2
qx  k (1.2)
L

Heat rate [W]: qx  qx  A

Application of Hear Transfer in Process
Industries
 Exchange of heat between two fluids is a widely used
unit operation in chemical process industries.
 Some materials are to be kept in a particular phase
other than their most stable phases at ambient
condition. E.g., liquid ammonia is stored at a low
temperature, ca. -33°C; tar is kept above ambient
temp in pipe transportation.
 This is usually done by a continuous heat transfer
using heating/cooling medium.
Modes of Heat Transfer
 When two objects at different temperatures are
brought into contact, heat flows from the object at
the higher temperature to that at the lower
temperature.
 Heat is thermal energy in transit due to temperature
difference, flowing from high temperature to low
temperature.
 The mechanisms (modes) by which the heat may
flow are three: conduction, convection, and
radiation.
 Conduction
 If a temperature gradient exists in a continuous
substance (medium), heat can flow unaccompanied by
any observable motion of matter. Heat flow of this kind
is called conduction.
 According to Fourier’s law, heat flux is proportional to
the temperature gradient. Fourier’s law for one-
dimensional (linear) heat conduction is:
dq dT
heat flux  temperatu re gradient   k
dA dx
where q = heat flow rate, A = surface area of heat
transfer, k = thermal conductivity of the medium,
T = temperature, x = distance normal to surface
 Conduction …
 In metals, thermal conduction is by the motion of
free electrons. So, close relation between thermal
and electrical conductivity.
 In poor conducting solids and in most liquids,
thermal conduction is by the momentum transfer
between vibrating molecules or atoms.
 In gases, conduction occurs by random motion of
molecules, so called thermal diffusion.
 Common examples of pure conduction: heat flow in
opaque solids such as brick wall of a furnace or the
metal wall of a heat exchanger tube.
 Convection
 Convection refers to the flow of heat associated with the
movement of a fluid.
 Examples: hot air from a furnace enters a room, transfer
of heat from a hot surface to a flowing fluid.
 The convective flux is usually proportional to the
difference btw the surface temperature and the fluid
temperature, as stated in Newton’s law of cooling:
 h Ts  T f 
q
convective flux  temperatu re difference 
A
where q = heat flow rate, A = surface area of heat
transfer, h = heat transfer coefficient, Ts = surface
temperature, Tf = bulk temperature of fluid
 Natural and Forced Convection
 When currents in a fluid result from buoyancy forces
created by density differences, and the density
differences are caused by temperature gradients in the
fluid, the action is called natural convection or free
convection.
Example: cooling of hot components on a vertical array
of circuit boards in air.
 When the currents are due to mechanical device such as
pump or agitator, the flow is independent of density
differences and is called forced convection.
Example: A fan providing forced convection air cooling of
hot electrical components.
 Radiation
 Transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic
waves.
 If matter appears in its path, the radiation will be
transmitted, reflected, or absorbed.
 It is only the absorbed energy that appears as heat.
Examples: fused quartz transmits practically all the
radiation that strikes it; a polished opaque surface or
mirror will reflect most; a black surface will absorb
most and will transform it to heat.
 A basic equation for black body radiation is the
Stefan-Boltzmann law:
energy emitted by black body, Wb   T 4
Conduction, convection and radiation heat
transfer modes
 Introduction to Steady-state Heat
Conduction
Basic Law of Heat Conduction (Fourier’s
Law):
For all transfer processes (momentum, heat,
and mass), the basic rate equation is:
driving force
rate of a transfer process 
resistance
For steady-state one-dimensional heat
conduction:
q dT
 k (1)
A dx

Eq (1) is known as Fourier’s law.

 What is Heat Transfer?
Heat Transfer is the transport of thermal energy from one point in a medium
to another or from one phase to another phase in the presence of a
temperature driving force.

T1 Driving force for heat transfer from

A
Gradient Point A to point B
= T2 – T1 = T
T2  T1
Distance = x2 – x1 = x
 T
Temperature gradient
B
T2
T T2  T1
x2- x1 = x  0
x x2  x1
Heat transfer occurs in the direction
x1 x2
of decreasing temperature.
Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal conductivity k is defined in Fourier’s
law (Eq (1)) as the proportionality constant
between heat flux and temperature gradient.
 It is experimentally determined using the
same law.
 Gases have very low thermal conductivity,
liquids intermediate values, and solid metals
very high values.
 Gases. Conduction occurs by continuous
random motion of molecules, colliding with
one another and exchanging
k  T energy.
Ref [2]
Liquids. Similar to gases, heat is conducted by
molecules colliding one another. Energy is also
transferred by molecular forces of packed
molecules. k  a  bT
Solids. Thermal conductivity varies widely.
Metallic solids have very high k, while some
insulating nonmetallic materials have very low
k, but generally higher than k of gases. In
metallic solids, heat is mainly conducted by
movement of free electrons. In all solids, heat
is conducted by momentum transfer btw
vibrating adjacent molecules or atoms. k of
metals is generally nearly constant or
decreases slightly as the temp is increased.
Conduction in Various Geometries
A. Flat Wall or Flat Slab
For a flat wall of constant surface area A, and
temperatures T1 and T2 at the two points (x2-x1) apart,
q
 k
dT (1
A dx )
x2 T2
q
 dx   k  dT
Ref [2] A x1 T1

(2
q

k
T1  T2 
A x2  x1 )
(Electrical analogue,
)
surface area for an insulating wall composed of
25.4-mm-thick fiber insulating board, where
inside temp is 352.7 K and the outside temp is
297.1 K.

Solution: From Appendix A.3, k of fiber

insulating board = 0.048 W/m K. Thickness x2-x1
is0.048
0.0254 m.
q

k
T1  T2   (352.7  297.1)  105.1 W/m 2
A x2  x1 0.0254

Equation (2) can be rewritten in the form:

T1  T2  T  T driving force
q   
( x2  x1 ) kA x kA R resistance
where R  x kA is the resistance in K/W
B. Hollow Cylinder

Ref [2]
Rewriting Fourier’s law with distance dr instead of
dx,
q dT
 k
A dr
Heat trans fer area, A  2rL
r T2
q 2 dr
 
2L r1 r
  k  dT
T1

2L
qk T1  T2 
ln( r2 / r1 )
multiplyin g numerator and denominato r by ( r2  r1 ),
2L( r2  r1 ) T1  T2  T  T2 T1  T2 T  T2 (3)
qk  kAlm 1   1
ln( r2 / r1 ) ( r2  r1 ) r2  r1 ( r2  r1 ) /( kAlm ) R
( 2Lr2 )  ( 2Lr1 ) A2  A1
where Alm  
ln( 2Lr2 / 2Lr1 ) ln( A2 / A1 )
(4)
r2  r1 ln( r2 / r1 )
and R   (5)
kAlm 2kL
Example 2: A thick-walled cylindrical tubing of hard
rubber having inside radius 5 mm and outside radius 20
mm is being used as a cooling coil in a bath. Ice water is
flowing rapidly inside, and the inside wall temp is 274.9 K.
The outside surface temp is 297.1 K. A total of 14.65 W
must be removed from the bath by the cooling coil. How
many m of tubing are needed?

Solution: From Appendix, k of hard rubber = 0.151 W/m

2L( r2  r1 ) 2L(0.005  0.02)
K.
From Eq.(4), Alm    0.0680 L m 2

ln( r2 / r1 ) ln(. 005 / .02)

T1  T2
 From Eq.(3), q  kAlm
r2  r1
 297.1  274.9 
14.65  (0.151)( 0.0680 L) , L  0.964 m
 0.02  0.005 
 C. Hollow Sphere

Ref [2]

Exercise: Derive the form of Fourier’s law for one-

dimensional steady-state heat conduction
through a hollow sphere.
D. Plane Walls in Series (Composite)

Ref [2]

kA A kB A kC A
q (T1  T2 )  (T2  T3 )  (T3  T4 )
xA xB xC
 xA xB xC
T1  T2  q , T2  T3  q , T3  T4  q
kA A kB A kC A
 xA xB xC 
 T1  T4  q   
 k A A k B A kC A 
T1  T4 T1  T4 T  T4
q   1
xA k A A  xB k B A  xC kC A RA  RB  RC R
xi
where Ri  , and R   Ri , i  A, B, C
ki A i

Example 3: Heat flow through insulated wall

(See Example 4.3.1 of Geankoplis)
E. Multilayer Cylinders

Ref [2]

k A AA lm k B AB lm k C AC lm
q (T1  T2 )  (T2  T3 )  (T3  T4 )
r2  r1 r3  r2 r4  r3
Exercise: Derive the form of Fourier’s equation
for the steady-state one-dimensional
conduction through a multilayer (composite)
cylindrical wall, and identify the overall
resistance.
Example 4: Heat loss from an insulated pipe
(See Example 4.3.2 of Geankoplis)
F. Materials in Parallel

Ref [2]

T1  T2 T1  T2 1 1 
qT  qA  qB       T1  T2  (6)
xA / kA AA xB / kB AB  R1 R2 
G. Combined Convection and
Conduction and Overall Coefficients

Ref [2]
Th, Tc = bulk temperatures of hot fluid and cold fluid.
h1, h2 = convective coefficients of hot side and cold side.
Twh, Twc= surface temps of wall at hot side and cold side.
k, xw = thermal conductivity and thickness of wall
A = heat transfer area (surface area of wall)

 h A(T
Convective heat transfer rate at hot side 1 h  Twh )

kA
Conductive heat transfer rate across 
wall (Twh  Twc )
xw

Convective heat transfer rate at cold side

 h A(T 2 wc  Tc )

kA
At steady state,q  h1 A(Th  Twh )  xw
(Twh  Twc )  h2 A(Twc  Tc )
 Combining the equations,
Th  Tc T  Tc
q  h  UAToverall
1 / h1 A  x w / kA  1 / h2 A R
1 W  Btu 
where Toverall  Th  Tc , and U   
1 / h1  x w / k  1 / h2 m 2 K  hr ft 2
 F 

Important application is heat transfer from a

fluid outside a tube, through a metal wall, to a
fluid inside the tube, as often occurs in heat
exchangers.
 Using the procedure, the overall heat transfer rate is
Th  Tc T  Tc
q  h
1 / hi Ai  ( ro  ri ) / kAlm  1 / ho Ao R
q  UATm  U i Ai Tm  U o Ao Tm
1 1 1 1 ln( Do / Di ) 1
where Tm  Th  Tc ,     
UA U i Ai U o Ao hi Ai 2 k L ho Ao
Ai , Ao  inside and outside heat trans fer areas
U i , U o  overall heat trans fer coeficints based on inside and outside
surface areas
hi , ho  inside (tube - side) convection coefficint and
outside (shell - side) convection coefficint
Alm  log mean area of the metal tube wall
Di , Do ( ri , ro )  inside and outside diameters (radii) of the tube
K  thermal conductivi ty of the tube wall
L  tube length of heat exchanger
Example 5: Heat loss by convection and
conduction and overall U
(See Example 4.3.3 of Geankoplis)
Critical Thickness of Insulation

kAlm
At steady state, q  r  r (T1  T2 )  ho Ao (T2  T0 )
2 1

As the thickness of insulation, r2-r1, increases,

T2 decreases, but outside area Ao increases.
 2L(T1  T0 )
Combining the two rate q
equations,ln( r2 / r1 ) 1

k r2 ho

The effect of insulation thickness on q is,

dq  2L(T1  T0 )(1 / r2 k  1 / r22 ho )
 2
dr2  ln( r2 / r1 ) 1 
  
 k r2 o
h

The critical thickness is given by,

dq  2L(T1  T0 )(1 / r2 k  1 / r22 ho ) k
 2
 0  ( r2 ) cr 
dr2  ln( r2 / r1 ) 1  ho
  
 k r2 o
h
 REFERENCES
1. Geankoplis, C. J. Transport Processes and Unit
Operations, 4th Edition. Prentice-Hall, 2003.
(Chapter on Principles of Steady-State Heat
Transfer)
2. Incropera, F. P., Dewitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L.,
and Lavine, A. S. Fundamentals of Heat and
Mass Transfer, 6th Edition. John Wiley & Sons,
2007.
3. McCabe W. L., Smith, J. P., and Harriott, P. Unit
Operations of Chemical Engineering, 7th
Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2005. (Section on Heat
Transfer)