Chapter 1

Fundamental Solid-
State Principles
Pictures are redrawn (with some modifications) from
Introductory Electronic Devices and Circuits
By
Robert T. Paynter

1
 Objectives (1)
• Describe the relationship between the number of
valence electrons and conductivity properties.
• Describe the relationship between conduction and
temperature.
• Contrast trivalent and pentavalent elements.
• List the similarities and differences between n-
type and p-type semiconductors.
• Describe diffusion current.
• Describe how a depletion layer is formed around
a pn junction.

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 Objectives (2)
• Explain the source of barrier potential, and list
the barrier potential values for Si and Ge.
• Define bias.
• Desbribe the different methods of forward and
reverse biasing a pn junction.
• Explain why Si is used more commonly than Ge
in the production of solid state devices.

3
Fig. 1.1 Bohr Model of the atom.

Orbital shells

M
L
K

Valence shell

(a) (b)
Orbital shells are identified using the letters K through Q.

4
Relationship between Valence
Electrons and Conductivity
The conductivity decreases with an increase
in the number of valence electrons.

1 valence electron nearly perfect conductor

8 valence electrons insulator
(Max = 8)

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Fig. 1.2 Semiconductor atoms.

4 valence electrons semiconductor

Silicon (Si) Germanium (Ge) Carbon (C)

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 Electrons in Orbital Shells
• Electrons travels only in orbital shells.
• Each orbital shells relates to a specific energy
range.
• An electron can jump from one orbital shell to
another that has higher energy level if the
electron absorbs energy equal to the energy
difference between the two orbital shells.
• After jumping to a higher energy shell, the
electron will eventually give up the energy and
return to a lower-energy shell.

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Fig. 1.3 Silicon energy gaps and
levels.
Energy
Conduction band e4 = 1.8 eV
Valence
Energy gap
band
e3 = 0.7 eV
e2
e1

1.8 eV – 0.7 eV = 1.1 eV

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Fig. 1.4 Silicon covalent bonding.

Intrinsic (pure) silicon is

Si a very poor conductor.

Si
Si
Energy gap of Si:
Si single atom = 0.05 eV
crystal = 0.7 eV
Si

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Fig. 1.5 Generation of an
electron-hole pair.
Energy

Si Conduction band
Electrons
Si
Si Valence band
Si Holes

Si

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Conduction vs Temperature
• At room temperature, thermal energy
(hear) causes the constant creation of
electron-hole pair, with their subsequent
recombination.

• Conductivity in a semiconductor varies

directly with temperature.

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Table 1.1 Commonly used
doping elements.
Trivalent Impurities Pentavalent Impurities
(p-Type) (n-Type)
Aluminum (Al) Phosphorus (P)

Gallium (Ga) Arsenic (As)

Boron (B) Antimony (Sb)

Indium (In) Bismuth (Bi)

(Acceptor impurities) (Donor impurities)

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Fig. 1.6 n-type material and
its energy diagram.
Energy
Excess covalent
Si bond electron
Conduction band
Si Electrons
(majority carriers)
As
Si Valence band
Holes
(minority carriers)
Si

Conductivity of n-type material is increased

due to more free-electrons.
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Fig. 1.8 p-type material and
its energy diagram.
Energy

Si Covalent bond hole

Conduction band
Si Electrons
(minority carriers)
Al
Si Valence band
Holes
(majority carriers)
Si

Conductivity of p-type material is increased

due to more holes in valence band.
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 Doping Density
1 impurity atom per 105 to 108 Si atoms
and about 1022 Si atoms/cm3

1017 to 1014 impurity atom/cm3

(much more than heat-rupture electrons)

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 Effect of Doping on Conductivity

• At the rate 1 donor atom per 108 Si atoms, the

conductivity at 30°C is multiplied by a factor of
24,100.

• Conductivity in doping semiconductor is less

dependent on temperature.

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Fig. 1.11 pn-junction initial
energy levels.
Junction

n p n p
Energy

Energy
Conduction band
Conduction band

Valence band
Valence band

(a) (b)

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Fig. 1.12 The forming of the
depletion layer.
n p n p

Depletion layer
Energy

Energy

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Fig. 1.13 Depletion Layer Charges.

n p
+4 +4

+4 +4
+5
Electric +3
field
+4 +4

+4 +4

Junction

Total (+) = 21 Total (+) = 19

Total (-) = 20 Total (-) = 20
Net charge = +1 Net charge = -1

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 Things to Remember
• Depletion layer (or region) is the
area around a pn junction that is
depleted of charge carriers.

• Barrier potential is the natural

potential across a pn junction.
(Barrier potential is typically in the
millivolt range.)

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Depletion Layer Width vs
Junction Resistance

Depletion Junction Junction

layer width resistance current
Minimum Minimum Maximum
Maximum Maximum Minimum

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 Bias
• Applying the potential (bias) to a pn
junction, we can adjust the width of the
depletion layer.

• Forward bias is a potential to reduce the

depletion layer width and junction
resistance as a result.
• Reverse bias is a potential to increase the
depletion layer width and junction
resistance as a consequence.

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Fig. 1.14 The effect of forward bias.

n p n p

V V
SW1 SW1

(a) An unbiased pn junction (b) Charge motion at the

moment SW1 is closed

n p
n p

Rn Rp
V
SW1
Rb

(c) Conduction increases as the (d) Bulk resistance

depletion layer becomes
narrower 23
Forward-biased pn junction.

A forward-biased pn junction showing the flow of

majority carriers and the voltage due to the
barrier potential across the depletion region.
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Fig. 1.15 Some forward-
biased pn junction.
+V -V

p n

n p

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Fig. 1.16 The effect of reverse bias.

n p n p

V V
SW1 SW1

(a) A conducting pn junction (b) A depletion layer forms

when there is no current

n p

V
SW1

(c) When the bias is reversed, the depletion

layer widens as charge carriers move away
from the junction
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Reverse-biased pn junction.

The extremely small reverse current in a reverse-

biased pn junction is due to the minority carriers
from thermally generated electron-hole pairs.
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Fig. 1.17 Some reverse-
biased pn junction.
+V -V

n p

p n

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 Fig. 1.18 pn-junction biasing.
Forward bias Reverse bias
+V -V -V +V

p n p n

n p n p

Bias Type Junction Polarities Junction Resistance

Forward n-type is more (-) than p-type Extremely low
Reverse p-type is more (-) than n-type Extremely high

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 A Final Note
Si is preferred to Ge:
• Si is more tolerant of heat.
• Germanium oxide is water soluble – make
it difficult to process.
• A Ge device allows more leakage current
than that of Si.

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 Summary
• Semiconductor valence shell.
• n-type and p-type doping.
• pn junction.
• Forward and reverse bias.
• Why Si is preferred to Ge.

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