Measurement of force and

torque
Palak Desai
Mechanical Engineering Department

C G Patel Institute of Technology

Uka Tarsadia University
Bardoli
Measuring devices
Measurands Measuring instruments
Force, load Analytical balance
Platform balance
Proving ring
Load cell
Torque Prony brake
Hydraulic dynamometer
Introduction
 Force: It is defined as the reaction between the two bodies or
components.
 The reaction can be either tensile force (Pull) or it can be
Compressive force (Push).
 Measurement of force can be done by any two methods:
◦ Direct Method: This involves a direct comparison with a known
gravitational force on a standard mass. Example: Physical Balance.
◦ Indirect Method: This involves the measurement of effect of force
on a body. E.g. Force is calculated from acceleration due to gravity and
the mass of the component.
Direct Method: Analytical Balance
(Equal arm balance)
Unequal arm balance:
Unequal arm balance:
 Unequal arm balance:
• For balance of
moments,
Ft * a = Fg * b
or test force,
Ft = Fg * (b / a)
Therefore, the test force is
proportional to the
distance ‘b’ of the mass
from the pivot.
Proving ring
 The proving ring is a device used to measure force. It
consists of an elastic ring of known diameter with a
measuring device located in the center of the ring.
 They are made of a steel alloy.
 Manufactured according to design specifications established
in 1946 by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS).
 Proving rings can be designed to measure either
compression or tension forces.
Proving ring
 Standard for calibrating material testing machine.
 Capacity 1000 N to 1000 kN.
 Deflection is used as the measure of applied load.
 This deflection is measured by a precision micrometer.
 Micrometer is set with a help of vibrating reed.

P = force or load
M = Bending moment
R = Radius of proving ring
 Proving Ring:
 A ring used for calibrating tensile
testing machines. It works on the
principle of LVDT which senses
the displacement caused by the
force resulting in a proportional
voltage.
 It is provided with the projection
lugs for loading. An LVDT is
attached with the integral internal
bosses C and D for sensing the
displacement caused by application
of force.
 When the forces are applied
through the integral external
bosses A and B, the diameter of
ring changes depending upon the
application which is known as ring
deflection.
 Proving Ring:
• The resulting deflection of the ring is measured by LVDT which converts the
ring deflection or displacement in to voltage signal.
• An external amplifier may be connected to provide direct current to drive the
indicators or the measured value of force.
• In place of LVDT micrometer can also be provided for accurate measurement
of force or deflection, which is given by formula

Where,

• F is the force
• E is the young's modulus
• I is the moment of inertia about the centroidal axis
• D is the outer diameter of the ring and y is the deflection
Load cell
 A load cell is a transducer that is
used to convert a force into
electrical signal.

 Two types of Load Cells

◦ Hydraulic load cells
◦ Pneumatic load cells
 Hydraulic Load Cell

The main parts of a hydraulic load cell

•diaphragm
•piston with a loading platform (as shown in figure) placed on top of
the diaphragm.
•liquid medium which is under a pre-loaded pressure is on the other
side of the diaphragm.
•pressure gauge (bourdon tube type) connected to the liquid
medium.
Pneumatic Load Cell
 Torque Measurement:
 Torque: Force that causes twisting or turning moment.
E.g. the force generated by an internal-combustion engine to
turn a vehicle's drive or shaft.
 Torque measuring devices are called as dynamometers.

 The torque may be computed by measuring the force ‘F’ at a

known radius ‘r’, given by the formula
in N - m
Torque Measurement:

 Torque measurement is usually associated with determination

of mechanical power, either power required to operate a
machine or to find out the power developed by the machine.
2NT
power  kw
60 *1000
Where,
N = Speed in rpm.
T =Torque developed due to load “W”, (N-m)
R = Radius from the center to the point of application of force
(m)
DYNAMOMETERS
 Dynamometers are used to measure brake torque and power
over the engine operating ranges of speed and load.
 They do this by using various methods to absorb the energy
output of the engine, all of which eventually ends up as heat.
 Some dynamometers absorb energy in a mechanical friction
brake (prony brake).
 These are the simplest dynamometers but are not as flexible
and accurate as others at higher energy levels.
 Fluid or hydraulic dynamometers absorb engine energy in
water or oil pumped through orifices or dissipated with
viscous losses in a rotor-stator combination.
 Large amounts of energy can be absorbed in this manner,
making this an attractive type of dynamometer for the largest
of engines.
 Types of Dynamometers:
 Absorption dynamometers:
◦ They are useful for measuring power or torque developed by
power source such as engines or electric motors.

 Transmission dynamometers:
◦ These are the passive devices placed at an appropriate
location within a machine or in between the machine to
sense the torque at that location.

 Driving dynamometers:
◦ These dynamometers measure power or torque and as well
provide energy to operate the device to be tested.
◦ These are useful in determining performance characteristics
of devices such as pumps and compression.
Classification of Absorption
Dynamometers

The following two types of absorption dynamometers:

1. Prony brake dynamometer
2. Rope brake dynamometer
3. Hydraulic dynamometer
4. Eddy current dynamometer
 Prony Brake Dynamometer

•It consists of two wooden blocks placed around a pulley fixed to the shaft
of an engine whose power is required to be measured.

•A helical spring is provided between the nut and the upper block to
adjust the pressure on the pulley to control its speed.

•The upper block has a long lever attached to it and carries a weight W at
its outer end.

•A counter weight is placed at the other end of the lever which balances
the brake when unloaded. Two stops S, S are provided to limit the motion
of the lever.
W = Weight at the outer end of the lever in newtons,
L = Horizontal distance of the weight W from the centre of the
pulley in meters
F = Frictional resistance between the blocks and the pulley in
R = Radius of the pulley in metres
N = Speed of the shaft in r.p.m.
 frictional resistance or torque on the shaft,
T = W.L = F.R N-m
• Work done in one revolution = Torque × Angle turned in radian
= T × 2π N-m
∴ Work done per minute = T ×2π N N-m
 brake power of the engine =
 Rope Brake Dynamometer
•It is another form of absorption
type dynamometer.
• It consists of one, two or more
ropes wound around the flywheel
or
rim of a pulley fixed rigidly to the
shaft of an engine.
•The upper end of the ropes is
attached to a spring balance while
the lower end of the ropes is kept
in position by applying a dead
weight as shown in Figure.
• In order to prevent the slipping of
the rope over the flywheel, wooden
blocks are placed at intervals
around the circumference of the
flywheel.
W = Dead load in newtons
S = Spring balance reading in newtons
D = Diameter of the wheel in metres
D = diameter of rope in metres
N = Speed of the engine shaft in r.p.m.
∴ Net load on the brake = (W – S) N
 We know that distance moved in one revolution = π(D+ d)m
∴ Work done per revolution = (W − S) π (D + d ) N-m
 work done per minute = (W − S) π(D + d ) N N-m
∴ Brake power of the engine,

•If the diameter of the rope (d) is neglected, then brakepower of the
engine,
 Hydraulic Dynamometer
 This is a power sink which uses fluid friction for dissipation of the
input energy and there by measures the input torque or power.
 The capacity of hydraulic dynamometer is a function of two
parameters speed and the water level.
 The torque is measured with the help of reaction arm or shaft.
 The power absorption at a given speed may be controlled by
adjustment of water level in the housing.
 This dynamometer may be used in larger capacities than the
simple Prony brake dynamometer because heat generated
can be can be easily removed by circulating the water in and
out of the housing.
 The force acting on the shaft is then measured by using the
force measuring device or strain gauges.
 Then by using the relation, T = F . r, we can find the torque
acting on it.
Hydraulic Dynamometer:
Hydraulic Dynamometer
Characters
 Small in size. Easy installation
 Simple dynamometer structure and easy for
maintenance
 High brake torque
 High measurement accuracy
 Reliable and stable working condition
 High real-time speed measurement accuracy with EM
sensors
 Fast loading control by electronic-control butterfly
valve
 High reaction speed which is suitable on dynamic
testing Tuning of in-use engines, typically at service
centers or for racing applications
Eddy Current Dynamometers
 Eddy current dynamometers use a disk, driven by the engine being tested,
rotating in a magnetic field of controlled strength.
 The rotating disk acts as an electrical conductor cutting the lines of
magnetic flux and producing eddy currents in the disk.
 With no external circuit, the energy from the induced currents is absorbed
in the disk.
Classification of Transmission
Dynamometers
 The following types of transmission dynamometers
are as follows:

1. Epicyclic-train dynamometer
2. Belt transmission dynamometer
3. Torsion dynamometer
 Epicyclic-train Dynamometer

•it consists of a simple epicyclic train

of gears, i.e. a spur gear. The spur gear is
keyed to the engine shaft and rotates in anticlockwise direction.
•The annular gear is also keyed to the driving shaft and rotates in clockwise
direction.
•The pinion or the intermediate gear meshes with both the spur and annular
gears. The pinion revolves freely on a lever.
• A weight w is placed at the smaller end of the lever in order to keep it in
position.
• The tangential effort P exerted by the spur gear on the pinion and the
tangential reaction of the annular gear on the pinion are equal.
For equilibrium of the lever, taking moments about the fulcrum
F, 2P × a = W.L or P = W.L /2a
R = Pitch circle radius of the spur gear in metres, and
N = Speed of the engine shaft in r.p.m.
∴ Torque transmitted, T = P.R
And power transmitted,
 Belt Transmission
Dynamometer
•When the belt is transmitting power from one pulley to another, the
tangential effort on the driven pulley is equal to the difference between the
tensions in the tight and slack sides of the belt.
• A belt dynamometer is introduced to measure directly the difference
between the tensions of the belt,
while it is running.
 A belt transmission dynamometer, is called a Froude or Throneycroft transmission
dynamometer.
 It consists of a pulley A (called driving pulley) which is rigidly fixed tothe shaft of
an engine whose power is required to be measured.
 There is another pulley B (called driven pulley) mounted on another shaft to
which the power from pulley A is transmitted.The pulleys
 A and B are connected by means of a continuous belt passing round the two
loose pulleys C and D which are mounted on a T-shaped frame.
 The frame is pivoted at E and its movement is controlled by two stops S,S. Since
the tension in the tight side of the belt (T1) is greater than the tension in the
slack side of the belt (T2),so the total force acting on the pulley C (i.e. 2T1) is
greater than the total force acting on the pulley D (i.e. 2T2). It is thus obvious
that the frame causes movement about E in the anticlockwise direction. In order
to balance it, a weight W is applied at a distance L from E on the frame as shown
in Figure.
 Now taking moments about the pivot E, neglecting friction,
2T1 × a = 2T2 × a +W.L or
D = diameter of the pulley A in metres
N = Speed of the engine shaft in r.p.m.
∴ Work done in one revolution = (T1 − T2 ) π D N-m
and workdone per minute = (T1 − T2 ) π DN N-m
∴ Brake power of the engine,
Torsion Dynamometer
 A torsion dynamometer is used for measuring large
powers particularly the power transmitted along the
propeller shaft of a turbine or motor vessel.
 A little consideration will show that when the power is
being transmitted, then the driving end of the shaft
twists through a small angle relative to the driven end
of the shaft. The amount of twist depends upon many
factors such as
 torque acting on the shaft (T)
 length of the shaft (l)
 diameter of the shaft (D)
 modulus of rigidity (C) of the material of the shaft.
 We know that the torsion equation is,

where θ = Angle of twist in radians, and

J = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft.
 For a solid shaft of diameter D, the polar moment of inertia

 for a hollow shaft of external diameter D and internal diameter d,

the polar moment of inertia,

 From the above torsion equation

 the power transmitted,
 Bevis-Gibson Flash Light Torsion
Dynamometer
•It depends upon the fact that the light
travels in a straight line through air of
uniform density and the velocity of light is
infinite.
• It consists of two discs A and B fixed on a
shaft at a convenient distance apart Each
disc has a small radial slot and these two
slots are in the same line when no power
is transmitted and there is no torque on
the shaft.
•A bright electric lamp L, behind the disc
A, is fixed on the bearing of the shaft.
• At every revolution of the shaft, a flash
of light is projected through the slot in the
disc A
•An eye piece E is fitted behind the disc B
on the shaft bearing and is capable of
slight circumferential adjustment.
 When the shaft does not transmit any torque (i.e. at rest), a flash of
light may be seen after every revolution of the shaft, as the positions
of the slit do not change relative to one another as shown in Figure
(b)
 when the torque is transmitted, the shaft twists and the slot in the
disc B changes its position, though the slots in L, A and E are still in
line.
 Due to this, the light does not reach to the eye piece as shown in
Figure (c). If the eye piece is now moved round by an amount equal to
the lag of disc B, then the slot in the eye piece will be opposite to the
slot in disc B as shown in Figure (d) and hence the eye piece receives
flash of light.
 The eye piece is moved by operating a micrometer spindle and by
means of scale and vernier , the angle of twist may be measured
upto1/100th of a degree.