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Notes-02
1
It relates to notes taught last time. The books and the course contents derived therefrom may change as class-notes
evolve over time.
The Principle of Conservation of Energy
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed.
• The First Law of Thermodynamics is merely one statement of this general principle with particular
reference to heat and work.
Note
Don’t confuse the 1st law with energy conservation. The latter connotes preservation of quality of energy! This concept is akin more
to the 2nd law.
• Change in 𝑢 as system (working fluid) changes from state-1 to state-2 is ∆𝑢 =
𝑢2 − 𝑢1 .
• In any one non-flow process there will be either heat supplied or heat rejected, but not both;
similarly there will be either work output or work input, but not both.
• According to the convention (to be followed throughout this course), heat supplied to the system is
positive, work done by the system is positive.
• Applying above rules reduces the equation, 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = σ21 𝛿𝑄 − σ21 𝛿𝑊, to:
i.e. 𝑄 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 + 𝑊
𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝛿𝑊 −−−− − 3
Note
Equations (1, 2 and 3) are true whether the process is reversible or irreversible. These are energy equations [energy
is conserved!].
Example-2
Statement
In the compression stroke of an internal-combustion engine the heat rejected to the cooling water is
45 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 and the work input is 90 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔. Calculate the change in specific internal energy of the
working fluid stating whether it is a gain or a loss.
Solution
Applying eqn-2:
𝑄 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑊
∴ −45 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 − 90 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = +90 − 45 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 = 45 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
Statement
In the cylinder of an air motor, the compressed air has a specific internal energy of 420 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 at the
beginning of the expansion and a specific internal energy of 200 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 after expansion. Calculate the
heat flow to or from the cylinder when the work done by the air during the expansion is 100 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 .
Solution
Applying eqn-2:
𝑄 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑊
𝑊 = න 𝑝𝑑𝜈
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or, in differential form,
𝛿𝑊 = 𝑝𝑑𝜈
Substituting in eqn-3,
𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑝𝑑𝜈 −−−− − 4
• Substituting the expression for reversible work in eqn-2 gives:
𝑄 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + න 𝑝𝑑𝜈 −−−− − 5
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• Heat and work are path functions; both depend on the particular process (path).
• System property is a point function; it depends only on the state point, never on
the history (process/path) about how the system state has been reached.
The Steady Flow Energy Equation
• Let 1𝑘𝑔 of a fluid with specific internal energy, 𝑢, is moving with velocity 𝐶 and is a height 𝑍 above a
datum level. In this condition, it possesses a total energy, 𝑢 + 𝐶 2 Τ2 + 𝑍𝑔, where 𝐶 2 Τ2 is the kinetic
energy of 1𝑘𝑔 of fluid and 𝑍𝑔 is the potential energy of 1𝑘𝑔 of fluid.
• In most applications of engineering interest, the rate at which fluid flows through a piece of machinery,
equipment or apparatus, is constant.
Energy that leaves at outlet and that transferred as work output across the boundary
= 𝐈𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝟏 + 𝐈𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝟐 + 𝐈𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝟑
• For steady flow (fluid, heat and/or work), it is possible to write the following balance equation [1st
law of thermodynamics]:
• The sum of specific internal energy, 𝑢, and the term, 𝑝𝜈, is given the symbol, ℎ, and is called specific
enthalpy.
• Eqn-8 is called steady-flow energy equation. Since enthalpy is a system property, it can be
introduced into any problem whether the process is a flow process or a non-flow process.
• Elaborating more on steady flow, consider now any section of cross-
sectional area where the fluid velocity is 𝐶, then the volume flow past the
section is 𝐶𝐴.