Biological Molecules

we love carbohydrates

BIO SWEET ME!

Carbohydrates
 Organic compounds, containing C, H, O
 Ratio of H to O = 2:1
 Aldehydes OR Ketones
 Contain several –OH groups and many
C-H bonds which release E when
broken
General Jobs
 E storage
 Building blocks
 Structural role
 Respiratory fuel
Monosaccharides
 White  Exist as isomers
 Crystalline solid  ALL contain carbonyl
 Water-soluble group
 Sweet  Contain aldehyde
 Reducing agents OR ketone group
 General Formula:  Include glucose,
(CH2O)n fructose, galactose
Structural Isomers
 Glucose, galactose and fructose are
hexose sugars and structural isomers.

 Structural isomers have the same

molecular formula however the atoms
are arranged differently by bonding.
© 2008 Thomson - Wadsworth
Aldehyde/Ketone?
Glucose
 Ring structure MORE
common (more
stable)
 Ring structure used
to form di- and poly-
saccharides
 PYRANOSE (?)ring
2 forms of glucose

C-1 is described as
the anomeric
carbon. It’s the
carbon on which
the –OH can be in
the alpha or beta
form.
A quick note!
 Glucose dissolves in
water because it has
many hydroxyl
groups which are
polar!
Glucose Jobs
 Major source of energy in respiration
(most common respiratory substrate)
 Many C-H bonds present which release
E when broken (easily oxidised)
 Used to synthesise disaccharides and
polysaccharides (important building
blocks)
 Main form for carb. transport in animals
 Disaccharides

Sucrose is widely distributed in plants; it is the

sugar that is translocated in the phloem.
Lactose is found in the milk of mammals.
 Disaccharide formation

Formed by two monosaccharides combining with the

elimination of one molecule of water – i.e. condensation!
(reversible by hydrolysis)
disaccharides
 The bond between two
monosaccharides residues is a
GLYCOSIDIC LINK.
 They may be hydrolysed to their
constituents in living cells in the
presence of specific enzymes.
Properties
 Sucrose is a non-
reducing sugar
(cannot donate
electrons)
 Bond is a-1,2-
glycosidic link
 Roles of Sucrose
 Storage material in  Most abundant
some plants disaccharide in
 Respiratory substrate nature
(E source)  Superb transport
 Building block for sugar as is very
larger molecules soluble & unreactive
 Form in which most
carb is transported in
plants (via phloem)
Are we done yet?
 Enough already!
 But
 We
 Love
 Bio
 !!!
Polysaccharides
 Macromolecules (giant molecules!)
 monomers condense to form these
condensation polymers
 Insoluble in water
 Not sweet-tasting, not crystalline
 Branched or straight chain
 Include starch, glycogen, cellulose
 Main JOB: stores of potential energy;
structural roles
 Love that starch!
 Polymer of alpha-glucose
 Formed in plant cells – MAJOR PLANT FUEL STORE!
 Stored in form of grains in plastids
 Ideal storage molecule as is compact, insoluble, and
easily hydrolysed into glucose monomers
 Made up of mixture of amylose & amylopectin
 amylose

 Forms ~20% of starch

 Many alpha-glucose condense, forming alpha 1,4-
glycosidic bonds
 Long, unbranched chains
 Helical/coiled configuration
 Powdery, sparingly soluble in water
 amylopectin
 Forms ~80% of starch
 Many alpha-glucose condense in 2 ways forming
alpha 1,4- and 1,6- glycosidic bonds
 Branched chains
 Chains wound in helix/coiled, with spirals at
intervals
 Sparingly soluble in water
 Easily broken down by amylase
Amylopectin up close!
Another view - amylopectin
 Glycogen
 Energy store in animals &
fungi
 Polymer of alpha-glucose
condensed to form 1,4-
and 1,6-glycosidic bonds
 Chains more branched &
shorter than amylopectin
 Form small granules in
cytoplasm esp. in liver
and muscle cells
 Easily hydrolysed*
Glycogen Structure
Glycogen
 Highly branched,
short chains allow
quick, easy
hydrolysis into a
ready glucose store!
 Enzymes involved
 Hormone control
Cellulose
 Structural compound in
plants
 Fibrous & strong
 Major component of cell
walls
 Monomer is beta-glucose
which condense to form
beta 1,4-glycosidic bonds
 Unbranched, long,
straight chain polymer
 cellulose

 Alternate molecules rotate thru 180* allowing –OH

groups to react
 Unbranched chains are straighter & stronger
because of cross-linking (H bonds form between
adjacent chains)
Cellulose – the expanded view
stable cellulose!
 Cellulose
 Very stable, hard to digest – ideal structurally!
 Parallel cellulose molecules form bundles
(microfibrils) which cluster to form macrofibrils
 Immense
 tensile
 strength!
Cellulose
 Hydrolysed
chemically to
glucose with
difficulty (heat with
conc. acid!)
 Some fungi &
bacteria produce
cellulase which
catalyses the
hydrolysis
The many uses of cellulose!
 Cotton is used in the
manufacture of fabrics
 Rayon (produced from
cellulose extracted from
wood) used to make
tyre cords
 Cellophane is a cellulose
derivative
 Celluloid in
photographic film is
another derivative
 Paper (DUH!)
 STARCH GLYCOGEN CELLULOSE

monomer Alpha-glucose Alpha-glucose Beta-glucose

Bonds linking 1,4 glycosidic 1,4 and 1,6 1,4 glycosidic

monomers (amylose) + 1,4 glycosidic
and 1,6
glycosidic
(amylopectin)
Nature of chains Amylose – coiled, Short many- Straight, long
unbranched branched chains, unbranched
Amylopectin – some coiling chains form H-
long, branched bonds, with
chains, some adjacent chains
coiling
occurrence plants Animals & fungi Plants

function Carbohydrate Carbohydrate Structural

energy store energy store
General form grains Small granules Fibres
HW
 Draw the straight chain structure of
glyceraldehyde. Deduce from the
structure if the molecule is an
aldotriose or ketotriose.
 State the biological function of
glyceraldehyde.
HW
 Draw the ring structure of ribose and
deoxyribose. State the difference
between the two pentoses.
 Comment on the biological functions
of ribose and deoxyribose.
The end
 Phew!