Chapter 4

Overview of Multiple Access

Technique

1
 Introduction
 Multiple access scheme are used to allow many user to
share simultaneously the finite radio spectrum
 Sharing of spectrum is required to increase the capacity
 Duplexing is a technique in which one can
simultaneously talk and listen.
 Types of duplexing
FDD
TDD

2
 Frequency Division Duplexing
(FDD)
 FDD provids 2 distinct bands of frquencies for every user
 Forward link frequency and reverse link frequency are
different
 Forward band provides traffic from BS to mobile
 Reverse band provides traffic from mobile to BS
 In each link, signals are continuously transmitted in parallel.
 In FDD any duplex channel consist of 2 simplex channel
 Duplexer is used to provide simultaneous bidirectional
transmission and reception

Forward link (F1)

Reverse link (F2) Base Station

3
Mobile Station
 Example of FDD systems
Mobile Station Base Station

Transmitter BPF BPF Transmitter

F1 F2

Receiver BPF BPF Receiver

F2 F1

BPF: Band Pass Filter

4
 Time Division Duplex (TDD)
 TDD uses time instead of frequency to provide both a forward
and reverse link
 TDD system are digital and uses only one carrier to transmit
and receive information
 Multiple users shares the single radio channel by taking turns
in time domain;Individual users are allowed to access the
channel in assigned time slot
 Here each duplex channel has both forward and reverse time
slots to facilitate bi-directional communication
 If the time separation between forward and reverse time slot
is small then transmission and reception of data appears at
same time to user

Forward link (F1)

Reverse link (F1) Base Station

Mobile Station 5
 TDD is used when there is one chunk of spectrum
 In cellular system, there are 2 chunks (25MHz)
 In each cellular channel, BS & MS transmit freq
are 45MHz apart( no interference)
 In TDD there is no separation betwn freq but
there is separation in time interval
 TDD is used in cordless phones

6
824 825 835 845 846.5 849
A band B band
A” band

B’ band
A’ band
10 MHz 10 MHz
333 channels 333 channels
30khz 30khz
1 MHz 1.5 MHz 2.5 MHz
33 chan 50 chan 83 chan

20 MHz Guard
Base Transmit
869 870 880 890 891.5 894
A band B band
A” band

B’ band
A’ band
10 MHz 10 MHz
333 channels 333 channels
30khz 30khz

1 MHz 1.5 MHz 2.5 MHz

33 chan 50 chan 83 chan

2 frequencies in channel1 are 825.03(mobile transmit) & 870.030Mhz(base)

7
 Example of TDD Systems
Mobile Station Base Station

Transmitter Transmitter

BPF BPF
Receiver F1 F1 Receiver

Synchronous Switches

BPF: Band Pass Filter

8
 Trade off between FDD & TDD

 FDD allocates individual freq to each user

hence transceiver can simultaneously
transmit and receive radio signal
 TDD enables the transceiver to operate as
transmitter or receiver hence it eliminates
forward and reverse freq band

9
 Introduction to multiple access
 3 major access techniques
FDMA
TDMA
CDMA
Depending upon how the available BW is
allocated to the user:
-Narrowband
-Wide band system
10
 FDMA overview

y
nc
ue
q
Fre
C C
f2

B B f1

A A f0

Time

11
 FDMA

FDMA

power
ti m uency
q
 FDMA assigns individual channel e fre

to individual user.
 Each user is allocated with
unique freq band
 These channels are assigned on
demand to users who request
the service
 During the period of call no
other user can share the same
channel

12
 Features of FDMA
 If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot be
used by other user to increase the capacity( waste of resources)
 After assignment of voice channel, BS & mobile transmit
simultaneously
 Symbol time of narrowband signal is larger (Ts> Td) than delay
spread, hence ISI is less (no need of Equalization)
 FDMA is continuous transmission scheme, hence fewer bits are
needed for overhead purpose
 FDMA mobile unit uses duplexer hence both the transmitter and
receiver operated at same time
 FDMA requires tight RF filtering to reduce adjacent channel
interference
 FDMA mobile system are less complex

13
 FDM Telephone
 Group formation
 12 adjacent 4kHz cannel occupying freq
range 60- 108 kHz

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

60 (kHz) 108

14
 Block of CTE
300-3400Hz

LSB Basic group

Amplifier 104.6-107.7khz
BM filter o/p
108khz
300-3400Hz
CO
ADDER
LSB 100.6-103.7khz
Amplifier BM filter
104khz .
.
CO
. Crystal
LSB oscillator
Amplifier BM filter 60.6-63.7khz
64khz
12
CO 15
300-3400Hz
 Number of channels that can be
simultaneously supported in FDMA system is
N= (Bt-2Bguard)/Bc
Bt total spectrum
Bguard guard band BW
Bc coherence BW

16
Problem
 If US AMPS cellular operator is allocated
12.5MHz for each simplex band and if
Bt is 12.5 MHz, Bguard is 10 KHz, and
coherence BW is 30 kHz find the
number of channels available
Solution
N=416

17
 TDMA
 TDMA system divides the
spectrum into time slots and
in each slot is assigned to a
particular user to transmit
or receive.
 TDMA system transmit data
in buffered and burst TDMA

mode , thus transmission for

any user is non-continuous
ti m uency
q
e fre
18
 Each frame is made up of Preamble,
information and trail bits
 Preamble contains address ,
synchronization information that both
the BS and MS uses it to identify each
other
 In TDMA/TDD half of the information
time slots are used for forward link and
half for reverese link channel
 In TDMA/FDD similar frame structure is
used but forward and reverse link will
have different carrier freq

19
 TDMA in telephone
 24 channel system having 8000 samples/s
 8 bits per sample

 Pulse width=0.625us

 Sampling interval is 1/8000= 125us

 Period req for each pulse group is =

8 x 0.625=5us

20
Types of TDM
 Slow speed TDM

T R

 High speed TDM

21
 High speed TDM

Sampling ckt 5us

1
10us
Sampling ckt
5us
5us Adder

Sampling ckt 10us 15us

Master clk .
. 115us 5us 115us
.
Mono stable
Sampling ckt
MV 24
24
22
Features of TDMA
 TDMA shares single carrier freq with several users
 Data transmission for user is non-continuous, but
occurs in burst (low power consumption)
 Because of discontinuous transmission, handoff
process is simple for mobile unit since it is able to
listen for other BS during idle time slot
 TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and
reception thus duplexer are not required

23
 Number of channels in TDMA
system
No of TDMA channels
slots that can be provided Bg
is found by multiplying
B g

the no of TDMA slots per

channel by number of
channels available Bt
N=m (Bt-2Bg)/Bc
m max. no. of TDMA
users supported on each
channel
24
Problem 1
 Consider GSM which is a TDMA/FDD system that
uses 25 MHz for forward link ,which is broken into
radio channel of 200kHz.If 8 speech channels are
supported on single radio channel and if no guard
band is assumed ,find the number of simultaneous
user that can accommodate in GSM
 Soln

The number of simultaneous user that can be

accommodate in GSM is
N= 8 (25 MHz)/ 200 kHz = 1000

25
 Problem 2
 If GSM uses frame structure where each frame consists of
8 time slots and each time slot contains 156.25 bits, and
data is transmitted at 270.833 kbps in the channel find a)
time duration of bit b)time duration of slot c)time duration
of frame d)how long must the user occupying a single
time slot wait between two successive transmissions
 Soln

a) Time duration Tb=1/270.833 kbps=3.692 us

b)Tslot=156.25XTb= 0.577 ms
c)time duration of frame Tf= 8X Tslot=4.615 ms
d) a user has to wait 4.615 ms ,arrival time of new frame for
its next transmission
26
27
 CDMA (code division multiple Access)

 Narrowband message signal is multiplied with very

large BW signal called spreading signal
 spreading signal is pseudo-random code seq

that has chip rate > than data rate of message

 All user use same carrier freq and transmit
simultaneously
 Each user has his own codeword which is
orthogonal to other code words
 If power of each user within a cell is not controlled

at BS this will result in near far problem

CDM
 To overcome NFP, power control technique is A

used
ti m uency
28
q
e fre
 Features of CDMA
 Many user shares the same freq
 CDMA has soft capacity limit
-system performance degrades as no of users increases
 CDMA suffers from Self jamming :
Self jamming arises if spreading seq of different user
are not orthogonal
 Suffers from near far problem
 CDMA supports soft handoff
 Multipath fading is reduced
-RAKE receiver
29
 Fading
Fading in
in CDMA
CDMA System
System
In CDMA system, multi-path propagation improves
the signal quality by use of RAKE receiver.
path-3

Less fluctuation of detected

Power

path-2
power, because of adding all
energy .
path-1
Detected Power

Power
RAKE Time
receiver
Power

path-1
path-2
path-3
multi- path-2
Path Delay
path
path-
propaga
1
tion path-3 Mobile Station (MS)
Base Station (BS) 30
Advantages of CDMA

 Higher capacity
 Soft-handoffs
 Less power consumption (6-7 mW)
 security level is high

31
 Drawbacks of CDMA
 Self-jamming
 Near-far problem :

– signals closer to the receiver are received with

less attenuation than signals farther away
 Soft handoff

– Requires that the mobile acquires the new cell

before it breaks the old; this is more complex
than hard handoff used in FDMA and TDMA
schemes
32
Spread
Spread Spectrum
Spectrum Technology
Technology

33
 Spread spectrum
 All the modulation technique discussed so
far are power efficient and BW efficient
 Spread spectrum technique involves the

spreading the BW needed to transmit data

-SS helps to increase the no of users
Adv. Of SS
-to reduce narrowband interference

34
 Spread spectrum technology

 Problem of radio transmission:

suffers from narrowband interference
 Solution:
spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal
using a special code

35
 Effects of spreading on
interference
Advantage of SS is resistance to narrow band interference
Step 1: narrow band signal from sender
Step 2: Sender spreads the signal (narrowband broadband)
energy needed to transmit the signal is same but its now spread
over large freq range( low power level)
Step 3: During transmission narrowband and broad band interference add to signal
Step 4: Receiver than despreads the signal
Step 5: receiver than cuts the freq left and right of narrowband signal using BPF

36
 Types of SSMA
 Direct Sequence multiple Access (DS or DSSS)
 Frequency Hopping multiple Access (FHSS)

37
 Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
 DSSS takes user data and performs XOR
with chipping sequence(0110101)
 tb  User bit duration and tc chip
duration
 Spreading factor S=tb/tc determines the
BW of resulting signal (S*W after (pseudorandom noise)
spreading)
w original signal BW

• Advantages
– Reduces narrowband interference
– In cellular networks it supports soft
handover

 Disadvantages Fig: spreading with DSSS

– precise power control necessary 38
 Pseudo-Noise (PN) sequences
 PN seq is generated using sequential logic
 PN is binary sequence that resembles over a period
 When XOR is used in feedback logic it is called linear PN
seq generator
 For each channel the base station generates a unique
code. The base station adds together all the coded
transmissions for every subscriber..

39
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum)

BPSK

PN code Oscillator
generator fc

40
Receiver
Processing gain PG=Ts/Tc=Rc/Rs
There are two major benefits from high PG
•Interference rejection: the ability of the system 
to reject interference is directly     PG
•System capacity: capacity of the system        PG

Oscillator Bit
PN code
fc syncronisation
generator

41
 What should be the good code for CDMA?
-Code should have good auto correlation
-Should be orthogonal to other codes
 Orthogonal means , for eg

system of coordinate (0,0,0)

As in the case of 2 vector (2,5,0)∙(0,0,17)=0
 If inner product is not 0 than vectors are non

orthogonal
42
 Example of CDMA
 2 sender A &B wants to send data ,CDMA assumes following key seq
Ak=010011, key Bk=110101.
suppose sender A wants to send bit Ad=1,and B sends Bd=0
To illustrate this eg we code binary 0 as -1, 1+1
 Both sender spreads their key as chipping seq, a sender A send
As=Ad*Ak=+1(-1,+1,-1,-1,+1,+1)= (-1,+1,-1,-1,+1,+1)
sender B sends Bs=Bd*Bk=(-1,-1,+1,-1,+1,-1)
 Both the signal are than transmitted at same time using same freq
 The signal received at the receiver is C=As+Bs=(-2,0,0,-2,+2,0)
 The receiver now wants to receive data frm A and therefore it tunes it to
code of A ,depsreading :C*Ak=(-2,0,0,-2,+2,0)* (-1,+1,-1,-1,+1,+1)
=2+0+0+2+2+0=6
This is larger than 0, receiver detects as binary 1
 Tuning in to sender B, despreding :C*Bk= (-2,0,0,-2,+2,0)* (+1,+1,-
1,+1,-1,+1)=-2+0+0-2-2+0=-6, thus 0 has been detected
43
 1 0 1

Data

key A
Ak
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

Data + key 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

Signal As

Fig: coding and spreading of data from sender A 44

 Signal As
Data
1 0 0

Key B
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
Data+key
+ 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
Signal Bs

C=As+Bs

Fig: coding and spreading of data from sender B 45

 Reconstruction of A data
Data A

As+Bs

Ak

(As+Bs)*Ak

Intergrator o/p

46
 FHSS (Frequency Hopping
Spread Spectrum)
 In FHSS total available BW is split into many
channels of smaller BW+Guard band
 Transmitter and receiver stays on one of
these channels for certain time then hops to
another channel
 This system involves FDM & TDM
 Dwell time:
The time spend on one channel
 Fast Hopping:
Transmitter changes the freq several times
during a bit period
-If the td is < than tb than fast hopping
 Slow Hopping:
In slow hopping the transmiter uses one freq
for several bit periods
-If the td is >than tb than slow hopping 47
 FHSS transmitter

 1st step is modulation of user

Data by either using FSK or BPSk
 This result in narrowband signal
 If FSK is used 0f0, 1f1
 2nd step is freq hopping is
performed based on Hopping fc
sequence
 Hopping seq is fed to freq
synthesizer and it generates freq
fi
 2nd modulation uses modulated
narrowband signal and carrier
freq to generate new spread
signal with freq of fi+f0 for 0
&fi+f1 for 1
48
FHSS receiver

 dd

49
DSSS vs FHSS
 Compared to DSSS, spreading is simpler using FHSS
systems. FHSS systems only use a portion of the
total band at any time, while DSSS systems always
use the total bandwidth available. DSSS systems on
the other hand are more resistant to fading and
multi-path effects. DSSS signals are much harder to
detect –without knowing the spreading code,
detection is virtually impossible.

50
 OFDM( Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing)
 OFDM is a technique in which the spectrum is divided into a
number of equally spaced tones and carries a portion of a
user's information on each tone(carrier)
 OFDM is multi-carrier modulation scheme
 Each sub-carrier is modulated with a conventional
modulation scheme (such as quadrature amplitude
modulation) at a low symbol rate
 Each tone or sub carrier are orthogonal to each other
because they are orthogonal, they do not interfere with
each other.

 Sub carriers are spaced by 1/Ts and has

Sine spectra
 FDM requires guard bands between the frequencies
 OFDM allows the spectrum of each tone to overlap.
 Total spectrum required is reduced

51
example
 If a 100-tone system is used, a single data
stream with a rate of 1 megabit per second
(Mbps) would be converted into 100 streams
of 10 kilobits per second (kbps).

52
 Benefits OFDM
 High spectrum efficiency
 Mitigation against ISI
 In a single carrier system, a single fade or interfere can cause the entire link to fail, but in a
multicarrier system it preserves the link

 Disadvantages
 OFDM requires very accurate frequency synchronization in the receiver;
 Any inaccuracy means that the sub-carriers no longer appear orthogonal, resulting in severely degraded
performance.

53
OFDM Applications
 Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)
 Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB)
 Wireless LAN IEEE 802.11a
 Wireless networking

54