Topic 2: Well Subsurface

Equipment & Completion

Prof. Ajay Suri
Dept. of Petroleum Engineering
IIT (ISM) Dhanbad
 Topic Content
• Downhole equipment selection
• Perforating oil and gas wells
• Well activation
• Servicing, installation & testing
• Smart wells and intelligent completions

2
 Downhole Equipment
1. Packers 9. Blast Joints
2. Sliding Sleeves 10.Flow Couplings
3. Side pocket mandrel 11.Pressure gauges
4. Landing Nipple 12.Pup Joints
5. Safety System
13.Wireline Entry Guides
6. Slip or expansion
joints 14.Safety Joints
7. Perforated pup joints 15.Fracking Mandrel
8. Jars
3
Typical Well
Completion
String

4
 Typical
Completed
Single Pay
Zone

5
 Production Tubing Annular Seal:
Packer
1. Protects Casing: Isolates and protects the
production casing and wellhead from corrosion,
abrasion & burst from formation fluids
2. Stable flow: Doesn’t allow build up & possible
sudden release of gas in annulus during two-
phase flow via U-tubing
3. Zonal isolation: Isolates various zones during
production, e.g. two zones with different fluids,
GOR, pressure, perm. (relevant for uniform
injection) or to stimulate or maintain pressure in
different zones

6
 Production Tubing Annular Seal:
Packer
4. Annulus injection: Injection from annulus into tubing
ex. injection of gas, inhibitors, pour point depressants
5. Tubing injection: Injection of water/gas/frac/acid from
tubing at high pressure need not communicate with
casings and wellhead from annulus
6. Temporary Isolation: To prevent loss of wellbore fluid
into the reservoir during workover or well closures a
bridge plug is run ( a type of bore packer) which
completely isolates the lower wellbore from above

7
 Packer Mechanics
• Drive a cone behind a tapered slip to force the
slip into the casing wall and prevent packer
movement
• Compress a packing element to effect a seal
• End result is simple but means of
accomplishing the above and retrieving the
packer differs markedly between several types
of packers

8
 Types of Packer
• Production or test packers set in cased holes
• Inflatable packers (expansion is done by pumping
a fluid into a bladder as a balloon) in open or
cased holes
• Permanent packers (best for high pressure and
temperature deeper wells and more reliable)
– Set into casing with wireline while sealing elements
are on tubing run and set later
• Retrievable packers (lower depth wells)
– All elements are on tubing, can unseat and move
9
 Packer Components (Seals)
• Employs flexible seals that are rings of
elastomeric elements (special teflon, viton or
other material)
– Baker uses single ring
– Otis uses 3 rings (external harder rings used to
save the inner softer ring that seal on any surface
imperfections)
– For backup Baker uses metal rings while Otis uses
top and bottom shoe

10
 Packer Components (Slips)
• Slip system comprise of mechanical latch keys
located above or below or both above and
below of sealing element
• Slip teeth dig into the casing wall
• Anchors the packer to the casing wall so seals
can be compressed

11
 Packer Components (Setting & Releasing)

• Can be set independent to the completion

string or
• Can be set as an integral part of the string
• Different ways to compress the sealing
element
• After setting packer could be in tension,
compression or in neutral state
• During production, state could alter drastically
12
 Packer Components (Hold Down Buttons)

• Variation in bottom hole pressure during

production beneath the packer can lead to
significant differential pressure across the
packer
• Some packers have hydraulic hold down
buttons that force additional slips into casing
wall

13
 Important Characteristics
• Packer bore
• Setting mechanism
• Ability of withstanding differential pressure
• Retrievability

14
 Packer Bore
• Necessary to have bore through the packer for
each tubing string
• Single, dual or triple bore packers are available
for multiple tubing strings

15
 Setting Mechanism
• In all packers compression & extrusion of the
rubber element is done via different means:
– Compressing by putting tubing weight or pulling
the tubing compresses the rubber seals, simple
but often unidirectional
– Mechanical uses rotation of the tubing string
– Hydraulic needs formation zone to be isolated
– Electrically (explosive charge is detonated
actuating the setting mechanism)

16
 Ability to Withstand Differential
Pressure
• Compression-set packers require higher
pressure from above
• Tension-set packers require higher pressure
from below

17
 Retrievability
• Affects the work-over job difficulty
• May introduce design limitations ins terms of
withstanding differential pressure
• Retrievable packers are easily retrieved as an
integral part of the tubing

18
 Retrievability
• Permanent packers are not easily retrieved
– Usually run and set separately from the tubing
– May or may not have the tailpipe
– Tubing run later and engages the packer to
achieve a seal within the central bore of the
packer
– To retrieve it is necessary to mill away the packer
internal sleeves to allow the rubber element to
collapse

19
 Tail Pipe
• The tubulars and completion components run
below a production packer for various
provisions such as
– Facility for plugs
– Facility for temporary flow-control devices
– Facility for improving downhole hydraulic
characteristics
– Suspension point for downhole gauges and
monitoring equipment
20
Roto-mechanical set

21
Weight or Compression Set Packer
• Economical
• Suited to low pressure situations where
annulus pressure above the packer always
exceed the tubing pressure below the packer
• Can be set independently using wireline for
example or
• Can be run as an integral part of the tubing
string

22
Weight or Compression Set Packer
• Employs a slip and cone arrangement with slips
attached to a friction device such as drag
springs or drag blocks
• Friction device engages the casing and holds
the slips stationary w.r.t. the remainder of the
packer
• J slot permits vertical movement of the tubing
and causes the cone to move behind the slips
and anchor the packer in the casing
• Tubing wt. is applied to expand the packing
• Frictional drag limits tubing wt. and thus the
setting force that can be applied
• Release is effected by picking the tubing wt. to
the pull the cone from behind the slips
23
Drag Springs

24
 J Slot
• J-slot creates a track for tool
activation, ex. to set and unset
packer
• Most downhole tools work by
upward, downward, rotation or a
combination of them

25
Weight or Compression Set Packer

26
 Example from a Company’s Website:
Weight/Compression Set Retrievable Packer
• Setting Procedure:
– Run 1 ft below the desired setting depth
– Pick up to the setting point
– Rotate tubing to ¼ right turn to apply the set down
weight
• Releasing Procedure
– Simply pick up the tubing
– Has a safety joint if needed
• If packer needs to set further downhole, rotate
tubing to left ¼ turn
• To remove the tubing string from packer, rotate
string under slight tension at least 7 turns to the
right. Left hand thread connecting the top sub
will unscrew and tubing will disconnnect from
top sub
27
 Packer will unseat if a high
differential pressure exists
from below the packer

To release pick up the tubing

In highly inclined wells,
difficult to apply wt. 28
 Tension Set Packers
• Essentially weight-set packers run upside
down and set by pulling tension on the tubing,
i.e. the slip and cone are located above the
seals
• A differential force from below increases the
setting force on the packer and holds it in
place automatically
• Suitable for wells with higher bottom hole
pressures, ex. injection or stimulating wells

29
 Tension Set Packers
• Used in shallow wells where insufficient
tubing weight is available to weight-set a
packer
• Short and compact
• Require minimum space for setting
• Little maintenance

30
Tension-set
Packer

Cone is moved up behind

the slips to tighten their
grip on casing
Did you notice that the
slips are above the
packing element as
opposed to the
compression set
packer where the slips
are below

31
 Roto-Mechanical Set Packers
• Tubing rotation plays a major role, it either
– Simultaneously set the seals and slips in one
continuous screw-thread motion where cone
moves behind the slips and seals are compressed
or
– Releases the inner mandrel allowing tubing weight
to drive the cones behind the seals and
compressing the seals

32
 Roto-Mechanical Set Packers
• Generally employ a non-directional slips which
prevents movement from either direction
• Tension may be applied to reduce buckling
• Release is effected by righthand pipe rotation
– Disadvantage, screwthreads inoperative after
extensive periods of time or solids settling on top
of packer make it impossible to rotate the tubing

33
 Roto-
Mechanical
Packer

34
 Hydraulic-set Packers
• Utilizes fluid pressure on a piston cylinder
arrangement to drive the cone behind the
slips
• Packer remains set by a pressure actuated
mechanical lock
• Releasing is by picking up the tubing
• Hydraulic holddown is required since slips are
unidirectional

35
 Hydraulic-set Packers
• Hydraulic-set packers are used in multi-string
conventional wells (dual, triple and quadruple-
string completions, deviated holes or ocean
floor completions)

36
 Hydraulic-set Packers
• Tubing motion is not required so all strings
may be run and landed simultaneously with
multiple slips before setting the packers
• High setting force can be applied to hold large
differential pressures
• Disadvantage - cost

37
Hydraulic-set Packer

38
 Some more
components in a packer

39
Some More
Retrievable
Packers

40
Mechanical-set Retrievable Thermal Packer

Can be set using tension or compression

Only 1/4th right rotation required for setting or releasing
Thermal element rated to 600 F
Can be left in tension, compression or neutral
One piece mandrel with minimum leak paths

41
Single Zone
Completion Using a
Hydraulic Set
Retrievable Packer

42
43
 Permanent Packer
• Utilizes opposed slips with the
seal in between
• Can be run on tubing or cable
• Designed to remain in hole
• Have Metallic backup rings
• Used in high pressure differential
wells
• Can be pulled back but the
reversal process is not simply the
reverse of setting procedure like
in retrievable packers

44
 Permanent Packer
• Accessories available to convert the
packer to a temporary bridge plug to
test, squeeze cement or frac above the
packer
• To set by wireline, setting tool and collar
locator are attached to packer and
assembly run to desired depth
• Electrically detonated powder charge
builds up gas pressure that pushes a
piston setting the packer
• Release stud then shears and setting
tool retrieved
45
 Permanent Packer
• Through tubing workover methods
eliminate the need for removal of these
permanent packers
– Squeeze cementing
– Dump bailers
– Through tubing perforations
– Concentric tubing techniques
• Can be removed in 2-3 hrs drilling
using packer mill or 6 hrs with a
rock bit
46
 Permanent Packer
• Milling and retrieving tools are also
available to recover the packer by
– Cutting the upper slips
– Catching the remainder of the packer
• Cost is usually higher than weight
of tension-set packers but lower
than hydraulic set packers
• If fine placement accuracy is
required – wireline is used
otherwise run on tubing
47
 Dump Bailer
• A wireline or slickline tool used to place small
volumes of cement slurry or similar material in
a wellbore

48
 Permanent Retrievable Packers
• Have opposed slips similar to permanent
packers to hold high pressure differential in
either direction
• V-type Chevron packing
• Wireline setting
• But also Retrievable
• Made of steel instead of cast iron
• Longer than regular retrievable packers
49
 Permanent Retrievable Packers
• Setting procedure same as for permanent
packers
• Removed by straight upward pull from a
retrieving tool run on tubing or drill pipe

50
51
Example 1

52
53
54
55
56
57
58
Ex 2: Weight set packer
force balance

59
Permanent Packer

60
Packer with Two Zone Completion

61
 Communication Between Tubing and Annulus
for Workover
• Sliding Sleeve (large opening in tubing)
• Side pocket mandrel (small ports/pockets on
the side with seals that do not restrict normal
production and can be retrieved, cheaper for
work-over in expensive subsea wells)
• Perforate tubing as a last resort

62
2. Sliding Sleeve
1. Can be a part of the tubing string
2. Used for establishing communication
between tubing and its annulus for single
or multiple tubing completions
3. For spot acidizing and fracking
4. Can be used to killing a well
5. Chokes can be installed to adjust flow rate
6. Various metallurgies and selection of
landing nipple profiles

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nuuOKQ7
1T7w

63
3. Side Pocket Mandrel
1. Generally used to house gas-lift valves
2. Can house other devices for
communication between tubing and
annulus

64
 Rods, Bars, Beams
• Rod is typically round
• Bar can be of other shapes

• Rod or bar typically do not bend but only

support tension, compression or torsion

• Beam can take bending too

65
 Mandrel
• A bar, shaft or spindle minutely tapered
– typically put in a lathe to modify a material while
being turned or
– around which other components are arranged or
assembled
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wAUC0xQZ-
Rs
• Term extended in oil industry to include
specialized tubular components such as side-
pocket mandrel, frac mandrel or packer mandrel

66
 4. Nipple
• In drilling, any short piece of pipe, especially if
externally threaded at both ends
• In well completions, it is a short heavy wall
tubular that can internally seal with a plug
• Landing nipples are included in most
completions at predetermined intervals to
enable installation of flow-control devices,
such as plugs (for no flow) & chokes (for
restricted flow)
67
 Landing Nipple (cont.)
• Some other functions that can be performed
by the tools set in the nipples are
– Downhole measurements
– Pressure testing of all or part of tubing
– Testing the tightness of a circulating device
– Pressurizing up the tubing to set a hydraulic
packer and isolating the bottom zone
– Facilitating other equipment installation

68
 Landing Nipple Application (cont.)
• Main applications are:
– Providing ability to isolate the tubing from formation
– Leaving pressure and/or temperature gauges in the
well temporarily
• Tools that perform above functions are screwed
or locked to the mandrel that has been run into
the nipple via wireline or coiled tubing
• Location, number and type of landing nipples are
chosen according to anticipated future operations
(2-3 typically)
69
 Nipple Types
• Selective-landing nipples enables associated
slickline tools to be run through or set in the
nipple profile in any of them
• Ported or safety-valve nipples accommodate
wireline retreivable sub surface safety valves,
having locking recess & hydraulic communication
port
• No-go landing nipples have a reduced ID profile
for seating and are typically deepest nipples to
protect dropping of the tools below the tubing
70
 Nipple Profile
• Lock mandrel recess profile
• Seal bore which is a polished bore below the
lock profile to accept a seal assembly
• No-go shoulder which is optional but has a
minimum through bore and provides positive
positioning of the lock mandrel

71
 Nipple (cont.)

X- Standard tubing
R- Heavy weight tubing

72
Lock Mandrel to be Set in the Nipple

73
 Lock Mandrel
• Term for lock
• A downhole device, run and retrieved on
slickline and running tools
• Placed and anchored within tubing to provide
setting point for valves, chokes & plugs

Baker style 2.5 inch S-Lock with keys (upward

and downward facing dogs) preventing any
movement once set into profile nipple

74
 Lock Mandrel
• 3 types of locks
– Slip lock locates & anchors anywhere within the
correct size of tubing
– Collar lock locates in the space within tubing
collars (threaded couplings in the tubing)
– Nipple lock locates within nipple profiles
• https://westernpressure.com/products/lockin
g-mandrels/

75
 5. Safety Systems
• Subsurface safety valve (SSSV) device are installed
in the upper wellbore to provide emergency
closure should surface controls are damaged
– Surface controlled thru a control line strapped on the
surface of the tubing (wireline or tubing retrievable)
– Subsurface controlled
• Valve is set in fail-safe mode, i.e. if any equipment
fails, the valve is activated
• Video

76
 5. Safety System (cont.)
• Downhole shut-in system activated in the
event of imminent disaster
• Has a near surface packer and master valve,
supplementing the surface X-mas tree
• Downhole valve may be direct/self controlled
or remote controlled
• Direct/self controlled (storm chokes) are
preset to close when conditions at valve reach
a particular criterion
77
 5. Safety System (cont.)
• Can be operated by differential pressure valves
(ex. orifice valve)
– held open by a present spring tension until the flow
rate reaches a certain value
• Can be operated by ambient pressure valves
– the pressure in a pre-charged bellow is set less than
the normal tubing flowing pressure
– At high rates, the tubing pressure drops causing the
bellow pressure to close the valve
• Normally wireline installed in a tubing landing
nipple

78
 5. Safety System (cont.)
• Disadvantages of direct/self controlled valves
– Closing pressures need to be known with high
accuracy
– Actual tests may be needed under actual
stabilized flowing conditions
– Several conditions can prevent a correctly set
valve from closing
• Flow rate capability of well decreased
• Paraffin or sand accumulation restricting flow rate
• Wellhead failure but only with leaks
79
 5. Safety System (cont.)
• Subsurface-controlled subsurface safety valve
(SCSSSV) are normally positioned slightly
below the ocean floor or at 200-300 ft on and
locations. Consists of
– Special landing nipple with an external 1/8 in.
control line on tubing
– Safety valve
– Exit assembly for external line at X-mas tree
– Surface control unit and related lines
80
Slickline Retrievable Tubing Retrievable

Safety Valve in the Tubing String 81

 5. Safety Systems (cont.)
• Subsurface chokes and regulators reduce the
wellhead flowing pressure and thereby
prevent the freezing of surface controls and
lines
– Pressure and temperature reduction is moved to
the lower portion of the wellbore
– Allows higher temperature at depth to reheat the
flow stream before it reaches to the surface
– Also advantageous to have lower pressure on X-
mas tree and tubing

82
 5. Safety Systems (cont.)
• Bottom-hole choke beans at attached to lower
end of mandrels and set in a landing nipple or
anchored to the tubing wall
• Choke is susceptible to erosion and is rate-
sensitive but if no sand and constant rate it is
superior to regulator in economy, simplicity
and maintenance

83
 5. Safety Systems (cont.)
• Differential pressure (DP) regulators keeps the
DP constant across regardless of the flow rate
• Consists of a valve and a spring loaded valve
seat
• Predetermined spring tension determines the
pressure differential across the regulator
• When this differential is reached, the valve
seat moves off the valve to allow flow

84
 Pressure Regulator
• Used to allow high-pressure lines to be
reduced to a usable and safe pressure while
maintaining a constant output pressure
despite fluctuations in inlet pressure

• A force balance is used on a diaphragm to

control a poppet valve for pressure regulation

85
 Pressure Regulator (Parts)
1. Pressure reducing element, often spring
loaded poppet valve
2. Sensing element, typically a diaphragm or
piston
3. Reference force element, commonly a spring
4. Pressure adjustment handle

86
 Pressure Regulator
4

3 Reference
Spring

1 87
Pressure Regulator

88
 Pressure Regulator Procedure
With no inlet pressure, the spring above the diaphragm
pushes it down on the poppet valve, holding it open.
Once inlet pressure is introduced, the open poppet
allows flow to the diaphragm and pressure in the upper
chamber increases, until the diaphragm is pushed
upward against the spring, causing the poppet to move
upward & reduce flow, finally stopping further increase
of pressure.
By adjusting the top screw, the downward pressure on
the diaphragm can be increased, requiring more pressure
in the upper chamber to maintain equilibrium.
In this way, the outlet pressure of the regulator can be
controlled. 89
 5. Safety Systems (cont.)
• Subsurface check valves prevent backflow of
injection wells
• Essential working elements can be installed or
removed with a wireline

90
 5. Safety Systems (cont.)
• Surface safety system is the first line of
protection against minor mishaps in surface
treating facilities
• Normally has valves held open by low
pressure gas acting on a piston
• If gas pressure is bled off, internal spring
action closes the valve against line pressure
• Low pressure gas can be tied into a network of
sensors to detect abnormal conditions
91
 6. Slip Joint or Expansion Joint
• Tubular joint that allows tubing movement
due to expansion/contraction
• Accommodates any changes in string length
caused by temperature and pressure ex.
during a downhole test
• Video

92
7. Perforated Pup Joints

93
 7. Perforated Pup Joints
• Provides an alternative flow path when
wireline measuring devices hang in the no-go
nipple below
• Pressure & temp. gauge are sometimes
installed in the bottom no-go nipple
• Locking devices for the gauges distort the flow
due to restrictions
• Perforated joints allow unrestricted flow
enhancing accuracy and reliability of data
94
 8. Jars
• Mechanical device to deliver an impact load to
another downhole component when stuck
– Hydraulic
– Mechanical
• Energy is stored and suddenly released when
fired (like hammering by a carpenter where
kinetic energy is stored and suddenly released
on the nail)

95
 8. Jars (cont.)
• Some jars travel freely to gain energy
• Some have a trip (pulling mechanism) or a
firing mechanism to initiate the jarring
• Designed to reset by string manipulation
• Capable of repeated firing

96
 8. Jars (cont.)
• Downhole tool used in fishing operations with
wide range of size and capacities
• Some slickline tools use jars to operate tools
that contain shear pins or spring profiles
• Jars are included on slickline, coiled tubing
and workover strings

97
8. Jars
(cont.)

98
 9. Blast Joints
• A heavier walled tubing
joint placed across a
perforated interval (ex.
in multiple tubing
completions) so as to
resist the jetting action
of the production fluids

99
 10. Flow Couplings
• Relatively short, heavy-walled completion
equipment installed in areas where
turbulence is anticipated
• Typically installed above and below nipples
where turbulence anticipated
• Prevents early failures due to erosion
• Video

100
 11. Pressure Gauge
• Device used to measure pressure
• Mechanical
– Bourdon tube
– Piston & spring
– Bellows & capsules
– Diaphragm
• Electrical
– Strain gauge
– Quartz crystal gauge

101
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Animation
http://users.telenet.be/instrumentatie/pressur
e/bourdon-tube-pressure-gauge.html

102
103
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

104
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

105
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

106
 Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

http://users.telenet.be/instrumentatie/pressure/diaphragm-pressure-gauge.html

107
 Capsule & Bellow Pressure Gauge

http://users.telenet.be/instr
umentatie/pressure/capsule
-pressure-gauge.html

http://users.telenet.be/instrumentatie/pressure/bellows-pressure-gauge.html

108
Piston & Spring Pressure Gauge

109
110
111
112
113
 12. Pup Joints
• A small pipe connected to the tubing or casing
string to space them out so as to land the
hanger properly in the the
housing/head/spool

• Note tubing joints are typically 30 ft

114
 13. Wireline Entry Guides
• Run on the bottom of the tubing string to help
wireline tools to reenter the tubing while
coming up

115
 14. Safety Joint
• Allows the workover string to be disconnected
at the joint depth if the fish can not come out

116
 15. Fracking Mandrel
• Fracking mandrel enables use of the existing
low-pressure wellheads that could not
withstand high fracking pressures
• Sleeve is inserted into a wellhead to isolate its
low pressure connections from the high frac
pressures

117
 Casing Shoe
• Heavy steel collar and profiled cement interior
screwed to the bottom of casing string
• Rounded profile guides the string past any
ledges or obstructions while running the string
to the bottom

118
 Float Shoe
• Rounded profile attached to the downhole end of
the casing string
• An integral check valve prevents reverse flow
• Guides the casing towards the center of the hole
with min. hitting of rock ledges or washouts
• String can be partially filled and floated for less
rig weight
• Inside if made of cement or thermoplastic as it
needs to be drilled out when going deeper

119
 Objectives of Production/Injection
Wells
• Provision of optimum production/injection
performance
• Ensure safety
• Maximize completion integrity (meeting
standards) and reliability (can be dependable)
over the well’s life
• Minimize total cost (initial, maintenance,
corrections) per unit of produced or injected fluid
• Any other requirements such as sand control
120
 Bottom Hole Completion Techniques
• Open hole
• Screen or Pre-slotted liner
• Cemented and perforated casing or liner

121
 Open Hole Completion
• Leave the drilled reservoir section as it is
• Referred to as barefoot or open hole
• Savings in cost & time
• Entire section is open to flow so no selective
control
– Not good in injection wells with layered
permeabilities as it would lead to poor sweep
– If water/gas breakthrough, difficult to isolate
– Interzonal cross flow may happen

122
 Open Hole Completion
• Can only be applied in consolidated
formations as during production wellbore may
become unstable
• Currently applied in
– Low cost/multi-wells
– Deep consolidated wells
– Naturally fractured reservoirs
– Some horizontal wells

123
Screen or Pre-slotted Liner Completion
• A wire-wrapped screen or steel pipe with slots
or sand control screens are installed in the
open-hole section
– Prevents sand production
– Slot size should be equal to the smallest sand
particle
– Slots may get plugged quickly
– Used in inclined or high angled wells to prevent
borehole collapse or for passing logging tools
124
Screen or Pre-slotted Liner Completion
• Same inability of zonal control as in barefoot
• Same advantages of lower cost compared to
cementing and perforating
• In case of premium sand exclusion screens the
cost saving is reduced
• Alternative to barefoot when reservoir has
large and homogeneous sand grains

125
Screen or Pre-
slotted Liner
Completion

126
Cemented and Perforated Casing/Liner
• Either install a casing extending back to the
surface or a liner which extends back to the
shoe of the previous casing
• Pump cement between the wellbore and
annulus of the casing or liner
• Perforate casing/liner and cement sheath at
selected locations using explosive charges
contained in a perforating gun

127
Cemented & Perforated
Liner or Casing

• For zonal isolation, effective seal

is important, i.e. cement
bonding integrity is important
• Cement can be squeezed again
into the leaking perforations if
required
• More costly completion (cost of
casing, cementing, perforating
and time)
• Use of liner reduces the cost
• Capability of zonal inflow and
outflow control for better
reservoir management has
resulted this to be the most used
completion
128
 Selection of Well Flow Conduit
• Factors: cost, stability of flow, ability to control
flow, safety or isolation, well integrity, special
situations like corrosive or erosive
environment
• Single zone alternatives
– Tubingless casing flow
– Casing and tubing flow
– Tubing flow without annular isolation
– Tubing flow with annular isolation

129
Single Pay Conduit Options
Cost is
lowest
Good for
high rate
wells
Problem:
Liquid
slipping
down
compared
to gas in
large dia
casing
Casing
corrosion,
erosion,
burst

130
 Casing as Flow Conduit
• Burst chances of the casing at the wellhead if
well changed from oil to gas production and
corrosion & erosion have worn it
• For workover, the well needs to be killed,
which would push any rust, scale or other
particulates into the formation
• Squeeze operations may concern the casing
burst pressure limitations
• Large dia casing may segregate squeeze fluid
131
 Casing as Flow Conduit
• So either productivity demerit or killing
demerit limit its application
• Usually limited to wells with very high
productivities
• Minimum workover if view of basic design
provided no abrasion and corrosion
• Fairly reliable with long life

132
 Casing & Tubing as Flow Conduits
• Alternative to tubingless casing flow
• Advantage over tubingless casing flow is that
wellbore fluid can be displaced to surface by
U-tubing along with injecting the kill fluid
• No need to inject the wellbore fluids into the
reservoir for putting in the kill fluid in the well
and face the associated high pressures which
may damage the reservoir with rust, scales
and other particulates

133
Tubing Flow without Annulus Isolation
• Slippage of liquid may happen in the annulus
with increased flowing pressure loss and
potential instability in not very high rate wells
• Solution would be to close the annulus
• Once in a while gas built up in the annulus
would unload as a gas slug into the bottom of
the tubing and would be seen as unstable flow
and referred to as annulus heading

134
 Tubing Flow with Annulus Isolation

• In normal or low rate wells, annulus flow can

cause problems of liquid slipping and loading
• Packer is placed closed to the top of reservoir
to minimize trapped annular volume
• To have well fluid circulation ability, a tubing
annulus communication component is
installed, ex. sliding sleeve
• Most used completion with maximum control

135
 Completion String Facilities

• Some are essential for operation or safety

• Some are for improved performance and
flexibility – leads to complexity and unreliability
• So in designing the additional options are
assessed on the basis of incremental complexity
vs. incremental benefit
• In high operating cost areas such as North Sea,
Alaska, Gulf of Mexico and West Africa basic
facilities are favored
136
 Basic Completion String Function
• Continue production or injection of fluids
without major intervention for repairs
• Safety and reliability allowing for shutdowns
when needed
• Completion string, production casing and
wellhead together should act as a composite
pressure system preventing reservoir or
injection fluids to escape other than via tubing
and X-mas tree into surface facilities

137
 Essential Attributes of Majority of Completion
Strings
• Ability to contain flowing pressures and any
pressures that we would place in the well
• Minimum pressure loss
• Optimum flow stability
• Isolate annulus if flow instability is likely to
occur or to protect the casing
• Ability to shut-in the well downhole remotely
if isolation from surface is not possible
138
 Essential Attributes of Majority of Completion
Strings
• Means to circulate or communicate between
the annulus and the tubing
• Means to isolate the tubing by plugging it for
pressure testing of the tubing

139
 Pressure and Flow Containment

• If tubing fails, production casing and wellhead

provides a backup to contain fluids
• Tubing size must be selected such that
production rates are optimized and stable

140
 Annulus Isolation

• Annulus heading cycle and potential damage

to the production casing requires annular
isolation
• Injection wells further require annular
isolation to prevent surface injection
pressures on the wellhead and the production
casing

141
 Downhole Closure

• SSSV provides emergency closure of the well

• Valve is either remotely operated on a fail-safe
principle or will be designed to close
automatically when the rate exceeds a
predetermined high rate or flowing pressure
declines below a pre-set level

142
 Circulation Capability

• A specific piece of equipment is installed to allow

opening and closure of a circulation port between
the tubing and the annulus for killing or
circulation operations
– Sliding side door, sliding sleeve
– Side pocket mandrel
– Ported nipple
• Coiled tubing or Snubbing unit may do the
circulation job but these would be even more
expensive and not available when required

143
 Tubing Isolation

• Means for secondary tubing isolation is

installed that supplements SSSV
• Allows the well to be closed if SSSV is to be
removed
• Is provided deep within the wellbore just
above or below the packer
• Isolation is done by lowering a plug on
wireline into the selective nipple

144
Basic Well Completion
Schematic

145
 Additional Completion String Functions

• Easy connect/disconnect in the tubing for not

having to pull up the entire completion string
for servicing (ex. replacement of SSSV)
• A removable locator device is installed that
can be pulled as required
– Ex. a packer seal system which allows tubing
above it to be retrieved
– Downhole hanger system that hangs the tubing
below it
146
 Additional Completion String Functions (cont.)

• Tubing string can extend or contract in length due

to variations in P & T.
• Severe extensions/contractions would put
significant stresses on the packer, wellhead and
the tubing
• Moving seal system is installed which allows
expansion and contraction without failure or
packer unset
• Concentric sleeve with seals between them is the
approach where one sleeve is stationary
147
 Additional Completion String Functions (cont.)

• Ability to suspend pressure gauge downhole if

frequently data is needed for production tests
• Similarly a temperature gauge can be installed
• Typically installed in nipples via wireline

148
 Additional Completion String Functions (cont.)

• Option for chemical injection from the

annulus into the tubing to minimize corrosive
or waxy crude effects (pour point depressant)
– Side pocket mandrel with a valve that would open
under prescribed pressure conditions
• Gas lift installations are another example
where gas is injected from annulus into the
tubing to lighten them or push them

149
 Additional Completion String Functions (cont.)

• Downhole pump system can be installed for

current or future lifting requirements
– Electrically powered
– Hydraulically powered
• Design issues will be
– Method of installation and retrieval upon failure
– Access to the tubing or wellbore below the pump

150
 Well Completion Design Factors
• Geographical factors
– Location
– Water depth
– Weather conditions
– accessibility
• Well characteristics
– Pressure
– Productivity or injectivity index
– Fluid properties
– Rock properties and geological data
151
 Well Completion Design Factors
• Operational constraints
– Environmental regulations
– Safety aspects
• Number of producing zones

• Typically divided into two categories

– Land
– Subsea

152
 Completion 1: Single
Zone with No Provision
for Tubing Movement

Main features:
VAM tubing (high pressure) Anchor
seal assembly latched into a
permanent packer

153
 Completion 2: Single Zone
Utilizing a Locator Seal
Assembly

Main features:
Moving seal assembly located in the
permanent packer
2 nipples located in the tailpipe
Upper one for pressure isolation if tubing is
retrieved and lower for landing pressure
gauges

154
Completion 3: High Flowrate
Zone Completed Utilizing an
Extra Long Tubing Seal
Receptacle for Tubing
Movement

Main features:
Large bore tubing for high rates
(20,000 - 30,000 bpd)
Packer & tailpipe set on cable/coiled tubing
Tubing latched into packer with anchor seal
Tubing movement range 5-15 ft
with extra long receptacle

155
 Completion 4: Single
High Flowrate Zone
Utilizing an Extra Long
Tubing Seal Receptacle
for Tubing Movement

Main features:
Alternative high rate completion
Referred as Monobore (7” O.D.)
Polished bore receptacle with
seal assembly for tubing
expansion/contraction
No isolation facility currently
below PBR
156
 Completion 5: Single
Zone Completion with
Gas Lift Facility

Main features:
Utilizes gas lift to increase
production
Comprises several side pocket
mandrels with injection valves
at various depths which allows
gas to enter from annulus into
tubing
Utilizes retrievable packer as
frequent mechanical repairs are
anticipated (ex. replacement of
non-operating gas lift valves)
157
 Completion 6: Single
Zone Completion with an
ESP

Main features:
Reservoir with insufficient pressure to
lift the crude or crude is too viscous
ESP (Electrical submersible pump) in a
side leg tailpipe, which allows access
to the producing zone below the
tailpipe, ex. for log survey
Retrievable packer in case needing to
pull the string for pump repair
Typical run life for large ESP is 1-3
years
158
 Completion 7: Dual
Completion with Segregated
Production

Main features:
Two tubing strings with separate
production for better reservoir mgmt.
Lower packer is permanent
Upper packer is retrievable dual packer
2 SSSV, 2 circulating devices etc.
Blast joint near upper completion
Design can be extended to 3 strings with 3
packers and produce from 3 zones or 4
zones if annulus production is allowed
Not common because of complexity
159
 Completion 8: Selective
Dual Zone with Optional
Gas Lift

Main features:
Flexibility of production from either or
both zones with gas lift using a separate
string
Can have concurrent production of both
zones using the 2 tubing strings
Excessive gas pressure is avoided on the
production casing especially at surface
and if casing is deteriorated

160
 Completion 9: Tubings Cemented with Dual
Completion

Main features:
Low Cost
Simple design
Disadvantage of lack of zonal
control
Applied in Middle East & US
Can have single, dual or triple
completion

161
 Subsea Completions
• Main design philosophy in subsea is based on
the fact that well intervention is very costly
and so design should be such that it requires
minimal of it whether planned (completion
10) or facilitated (completion 11)

162
Completion 10: Subsea
Completion Serviced
by Through Flowline
Technique

Main features:
Routine operations: setting plugs,
valves done by pumping fluid and
displacing the tools down
H member & 2nd tubing reqd. to
flowback displaced fluid
Saves on workboat for repair
but cost of 2 production
flowlines
Few TFL due to more economical
wireline/CT tech. developed 163
 Completion 11:
Subsea Completion
Serviced by
Wireline from a
Workboat or
Mobile Drilling Rig

Main features:
Reliability so wireline
work is minimized
By simple design and
by duplication of
essential items such
as Xmas tree valves
If workover required
workboat or semisub
or drillship has to be
mobilized

164
 Perforating
• Introduction
• Charge characteristics
• Assessment of charge performance
• Gun systems
• Operational considerations

165
 Introduction to Perforating
• Holes in the production casing or liner through
the cement and the formation are created for
production flow paths into the well
• Explosive charges are fired via an electrically
conducting wireline, or on tubing or drillstring
• In olden days bullets were used, but after WW
II armor penetrating explosives development,
shaped or jet perforators are exclusively used

166
 Shaped Charge Characteristics
• Considerable research on mechanics of the
detonation of shaped charges & penetration
of the target has been done
• Large number of design parameters &
operational conditions affect the performance

167
 Shaped Charge Components
• Case or container
• Detonating cord
• Primer charge
• Main explosive charge
• Conical metallic liner

168
 Main Explosive Charge
• Main explosive is usually stabilized
RDX (cyclonite)
– Extremely powerful, in terms of energy released
per unit wt.
– Reacts very quickly, process time is 100-300 msec
– Fast reaction rate is essential as it concentrates
the energy to a limited target area & excludes
thermal effects, ex. thermal energy diffusion

169
RDX C3H6N6O6 or (O2N2CH2)3
Molar mass: 222.12 g·mol−1
Appearance: Colorless or yellowish crystals, no smell or taste
Density: 1.858 g/cm3
Melting point: 205.5 °C (401.9 °F; 478.6 K)
Boiling point: 234 °C (453 °F; 507 K)
Solubility in water: insoluble [1]

170
 Container & Metallic Liner
• Metal or ceramic which will be shattered
during the explosion
• A conical liner is used to direct the explosive
force to direct it better with more
concentration onto the target

171
 Main Detonation (Mechanics)
• Main detonation wave moves at 30,000 ft/sec
• Wave exerts pressures up to 2-4 Million psi
against the liner which starts to deform

172
 Main Detonation (Mechanics)
• Outside liner material (not touching the
charge) flows towards inside as a fluidized jet
• Inside liner material produces a fluidized tail
• Relative distribution between the jet and the
tail is 1/3 and 2/3
• Jet parameters are 20,000 ft/s, 5 Million psi
• Casing material becomes plastic and moves
away
173
 Main Detonation (Mechanics)
• Formation material is compacted and moved
back ahead of the jet
• Tunnel created thru casing and cement sheath
into the formation
• No thermal effects as process is almost
instantaneous
• Penetration is solely due to high impact jet
force and its diameter on the target

174
 Main Detonation (Mechanics)
• Jet created over a few ms extends
• Slug with bulk mass of inside liner lags behind
the jet playing no role in creating the
perforation
• Slug follows the jet and get deposited in the
tunnel plugging it (detrimental to production)
– One solution is to use a bimetallic liner
– Replacing the Cu from the inside liner to Zinc (as it
evaporates and does not form the slug)
175
Schematic of bimetallic liner deformation

176
 Main Detonation (Mechanics)
• Penetration by high velocity jet
• Area of target proportional to diameter of jet

177
 Main Detonation (Mechanics)
• Rock is crushed, compacted and not vaporized
• Tunnel & surroundings have several zones as
depicted in the figure in next slide

178
Crushed Zone & Compacted Regions Around Tunnel

179
 Crushed Zone & Compacted Regions Around
Tunnel
• Zone adjacent to tunnel has compacted &
crushed grains with perm lower than original
• Next adjacent layer is overstressed with
compaction, micro-fractures, & breakage
• These layers are referred to as “crushed zone”
• Crushed zones approx. depth from the tunnel
surface radially outward is around ½ inch
• Perm is of the order of 20% of original
180
Properties & Extent of Crushed Zone Dependency

• Size of charge
• Casing wall thickness and strength
• Cement sheath thickness and strength
• Grain composition, size & shape
• Stress conditions in the near wellbore region
• Proximity of nearest perforations in same
vertical plane

181
 Charge Performance Factors

• Penetration length
• Perforation diameter
• Perforation hole volume
• Burr height on the inside of the casing around
the perforation entrance

182
 Charge Performance Factors

183
 Gun Size or Charge Size
• Size of gun will determine the amt. of charge
• Both penetration & diameter of entrance will
increase with increase in gun size in general

184
Effect of Gun Size

185
Wellbore Pressure, Temperature & Fluid Density

• High wellbore fluid density reduces the jet

velocity in case of small guns
• Wellbore pressure shown no observable effect on
charge performance, however use of reduced
well pressure (underbalanced mode) affects the
flow performance
• Elevated temperatures can lead to degradation of
charges and their performance (in deep wells,
with long contact time, hence inclusion of charge
in a hollow carrier suggested)
186
 Gun Clearance

• Gun clearance is the distance between the

O.D. of the gun and the I.D. of casing
• In general the gun performance would be less
with increasing clearance
• Effect can be severe when wireline conveyed
through tubing very small guns are used
• A positioning device to minimize gun
clearance is suggested

187
Perforations with
1 11/16 inch
Through Tubing
Gun in a Deviated
Production Casing

188
 Compressive Strength of Rock

• Performance is inversely proportional to the

rock compressive strength
• Gun performance results on a standard test
material could be extrapolated to specific
reservoir rocks

189
 Penetration
Reduction due to
High Compressive
Strength of Rock

190
 Strength of Casing and Cement Sheath

• High strength casing will absorb more energy

and hence reduce the length of hole (effect is
small)
• With more shots per foot (spf) in the casing,
the possibility of splitting the casing can not
be discounted (especially when cement
sheath is incomplete)

191
 Charge Arrangement

• Charges are assembled on a carrier

• Arrangement provides variation in spf per
interval and the direction (shot phasing)
• Low shot den. = 1 spf, high shot den.= 16 spf
• Low spf is for moderate to high productivity
reservoirs or for specific injection operations
• High spf provides improved performance in all
reservoirs but less in reservoirs with low
vertical perm or with sand collapse issue
192
 Charge Arrangement (Orientation)

• 0o phasing or in-line firing of charges provides

minimum clearance for all perforations if gun
positioned on low side of hole
• 45 – 90o phasing provides approx. radial flow
• 180o phasing provides flow in two planar
directions
• 120o phasing with 3 shots at 120o to each
other or 2 shots at +60o and -60o

193
Perforation Shot Phasing Patterns

• Phasing depends on permeability

anisotropy, spf, gun size & clearance
• Various options for phasing for given
spf
• For ex. 4 spf can be fired at 0o or 90o or
180o phasing

Best radial flow production

194
 Assessment of Gun Performance

• Industry has standard test procedures for

Comparing performance from different service
companies –In API Recommended Practice No.
43 5th edition

195
Assessment of Gun Performance (API RP. 43 5th Edition)

• Section I details testing for physical

performance of charges in terms of hole
dimensions under preset firing conditions
• Section II deals with assessment of impact of
confining pressure on hole dimensions in
sandstone samples under simulated
overburden pressure
• Section III & IV deals with the effect of temp.
& flow capacity of perforations

196
 API RP. 43 5th Edition (Section I Test)

• Section I test prescribes the firing of gun into a

casing cemented (min. curing time of 28 days &
tensile strength of 400 psi (which corresponds to
compressive strength of 4000 psi)) into a drum
• Several charges with a degree of eccentricity
expected under downhole conditions are fired
simultaneously
• Shot phasings and clearance as expected
downhole
197
 API RP. 43 5th Edition (Section I Test)

• Following measurements made

– Burr height on the casing
– Avg. diameter of the perforation
– Length of the perforation
• Gun clearance & positioning for all shots must
be recorded
• Note crushed zone and production
characteristics are not evaluation
• No specific lithologies is used
198
API RP. 43 5th Edition (Section I Test)

199
 API RP. 43 5th Edition (Section II Test)

• In section II test a 4 inch Berea sandstone core

is used to perforate

200
 API RP. 43 5th Edition (Significance & Validity)

• API RP 43 tests are principally of comparative

value between different guns/charges
• Does not provide downhole performance
• No method available for predicting gun
performance under different compressive
loads & lithologies (as per Heriot-Watt notes)
• Saucier and Lands (JPT 1978) documented the
effect of stress to simulate downhole wellbore
conditions on charge performance
201
 API RP. 43 5th Edition (Significance & Validity)

• API RP 43 tests are principally of comparative

value between different guns/charges
• Does not provide downhole performance
• Work has been conducted on cylinderical
cores of various lithologies under variable
overburden pressure

202
 API RP. 43 5th Edition (Significance & Validity)

• Saucier and Lands (JPT 1978) measured the

penetration & flow performance of shaped-
charges in 3 rocks subjected to simulated
overburden and pore-pressure stresses
• Penetration in two rocks decreased as stress
was increased
• Penetration was not directly related to
compressive strength as formerly believed

203
 API RP. 43 5th Edition (Significance & Validity)

• Section 2 allows the effect of overburden or

confining stress to be evaluated

204
 API RP. 43 5th Edition (Significance & Validity)

• Section 4 limitations
– Specific material, i.e. Sandstone is used that may
have the crushed zone properties different from
other reservoir rocks, say chalk
– Core bounded by steel canister
– Flow profile is linear from the core into the tunnel,
in real it may vary from hemi-spherical (1 spf),
through elipsoidal at 2-4 spf and liner at high spf

205
 API RP. 43 5th
Edition
(Significance &
Validity)

206
 Classification of Gun Systems

• Running method – wireline, tubing or

drillstring
• Underbalanced or overbalanced well
• Extent of equipment retrieval after firing
• Firing prior or after well completion

207
 Classification of Gun Systems (cont.)

• Majority wells are perforated using wireline

– Guns can be lowered prior to installation of tubing
• Guns are referred as casing guns
• Both during and after firing, necessary to maintain
wellbore pressure greater than reservoir pressure
(overbalanced condition) unless surface pr. control
equipment is used
– Guns can be lowered after tubing installation
through it and out of the tailpipe
• Guns are referred as through tubing guns

208
 Classification of Gun Systems (cont.)

• Guns can be tubing conveyed, i.e. on the end

of the tubing or coiled tubing
• Guns can be at the end of a drill pipe which
will be retrieved after clean up prior to
running the completion string

209
Techniques
for
Perforating

210
1. Retrievable & hollow carrier guns with
charges inserted into a sealed steel tube

211
 2. Expendable Guns

• Gun self destructs on detonation and only

connectors and depth corelation equipment is
retrieved
• Charges are strung together with no rigid tube
• Charge case/container designed to
disintegrate on detonation (friable e.g.
ceramic or aluminum)
• Not rigid gun so length of gun not limited
• No steel tube so more charge can be used
212
 3. Semi- Expendable Guns

• Uses a bar to carry the charges that offers the

durability and robustness similar to hollow
carrier

213
214
 Wireline Conveyed Casing Guns
• Allows large diameter guns with large amt. of
charge that creates larger entrance dia
• Length of gun is determined by
– Weight that can be safely suspended by wireline
– Length of the lubricator
• Guns are normally in the range of 3 3/8 – 5 in.
diameter. Clearance should be ½ in.
• Low clearance in general can take advantage
of 90o phasing
215
 Disadvantage is the
Wireline requirement of the
Conveyed well to be in
overbalance
Retrievable or the perforations
Casing Guns have to be isolated

Good in wells with

a relatively
smaller interval to
be perforated

Pressure control a
lubricator & a
wireline BOP
mounted on the
Xmas tree 216
 Wireline Conveyed Casing Guns
• To isolate the perforations, drilling fluid can be
used, not recommended as it can damage the
formation
• Use a no solids clear completion fluid with
effective fluid loss control using high viscosity
or a granular bridging material for high losses
• Set a high viscosity plug across the perfs with
a kill fluid above it

217
218
219
 Wireline Conveyed Casing Guns
• Compromise between gun/charge
performance and reservoir production
performance
• Gun performance better than thru tubing
guns
• Productivity comparable or lower than thru
tubing guns

220
 API RP 43
Section I
Performance of
Hollow Guns

221
 Wireline Conveyed Through Tubing Guns

• Constrained in diameter based on the smallest

I.D. inside the tubing
• In low rate wells with necessity of small tubing
sizes, wireline conveyed casing guns are needed
(although tubing guns down to 1 3/8 in. is
available), & up to 3 ½ in.
• Advantage of tubing conveyed is that the well can
be perforated under drawdown (underbalanced
condition) with bhp / drawdown controlled by
fluid density and surface pressure
222
Wireline Conveyed Through Tubing Guns

223
 Suggestion for Through Tubing
Perforation
• Use a drawdown in the range of 250-1000 psi
for high productivity wells
• For 100 md perm wells use around 1000 psi
• For low perm wells up to 2000 psi
• Gas well drawdowns are typically 1000 psi+
– If perm is < 1 md, drawdown can be up to 5000 psi
• Above is to avoid formation collapse & fines
mobilization around the tunnel
224
 Tubing Conveyed Perforating (TCP) Guns

• Involves assembly of a gun at the end of

drillpipe string, production tubing or CT
• Enables accessing and perforating long
intervals in horizontal wells > 8, 000 ft
• Large guns can be run with large underbalance
• No need to kill the well, either shoot & pull or
leave the integrated TCP as a permanent
completion (gun can be dropped too)

225
 Deployment Options for TCP
• Run the gun with conventional drill stem test
assembly
– Clean up & kill the well prior to retrieving the DST
string
• Run the gun attached to the base of the
tubing string tailpipe below the packer
– Set the packer
– Detonate the gun under drawdown
• Run & retrieve the gun on CT system

226
Temporary Permanent
Completion using TCP Completion using TCP
227
 Firing / Detonation Options
• Mechanical Firing
– A bar is dropped down the tubing onto a plunger
contacting a blasting cap on top of the gun
– In case of any debris deposition on the firing head,
circulation is done above the firing head
– Only indication of perforation is surface pressure,
not very reliable, & has uncertainties regarding
safety when the string has to be pulled

228
 Firing / Detonation Options
• Hydromechanical
– Annulus is pressured up and pressure routed thru
a bypass valve above the packer onto a series of
shear pins on the firing head
– A differential pressure shears the pins and a firing
pin is driving down against the detonator
– More reliable than mechanical firing, especially in
deviated wellbores

229
 Firing / Detonation Options
• Wireline firing
– A special wet connect is run on wireline after
positioning the guns
– Wet connect attaches to the firing head
– Electric current is passed down the cable
– Advantage in detonation indications – both
surface pressure and electrical indications

230
 TCP Gun Disposal
• TCP gun can be dropped or retrieved after
detonation
• But in either case, a vent assembly or a
perforated joint must be provided below the
packer for producing fluids before that
happens

231
 Advantages of TCP
• Gun size can be large
• Large hole with low hydraulic erosion
• Deeper penetration
• Up to 16 spf
• Substantial drawdown can be placed
• Long intervals can be shot in excess of 1 km
simultaneously
• Well is completed before perforating, safety
232
 Advantages of TCP
• TCP guns are more durable and can take
higher drawdown (> 2500 psi) during
perforations compared to wireline guns (can
be damaged or blown up the wellbore)
• With hydromechanical firing, TCP can be used
in deviated or horizontal wells where wireline
and mechanical firing can’t be used

233
 Disadvantages of TCP
• If a misfire occurs or no firing occurs, TCP
round trip is required (time consuming and
costly) and can have misfiring
• In case of dropping the gun, if it remains
opposite to perforated interval, would prevent
production logging
• Running procedure is longer which may lead
to charge degradation due to high T.

234
 Disadvantages of TCP
• Costs of TCP is higher than wireline. Cost is
lower if interval is longer
• If gun to be dropped, drilling the additional
sump cost and length to be considered

235
 Surface Equipment
• Operations are conducted under
underbalance pressure control
• In case of through tubing gun retrieval, tubing
head pressure (THP) needs to exist after
perforating, so a lubricator and wireline BOP is
assembled
• Both hydraulically actuated & a manual BOP
are located at the base of the lubricator
• The electrical conductor on which the gun is
lowered has to be pressure sealed
236
 Surface Equipment
• In conventional slickline, a stuffing box is
reasonably effective on a single strand line
• Braided electrical conductor for perforation
requires grease injection through a port into a
flowtube thru which the cable passes

237
 Depth Corelation
• In most case selected reservoir is perforated
• Guns be located at the correct depths
• Techniques for depth corelation used are
– Gamma ray (GR) log (measure a shaliness even
behind a casing). Placed above the gun and depth
is corelated against a previous GR log
– Casing collar locator (CCL) log monitors the casing
couplings as it responds ultrasonically to the wall
thickness of steel.
238
 Depth Corelation
• CCL is typically run with cement bond log after
casing cementation. Can be run above the gun for
depth corelation against a previous log. Can be
confusing as most joints are similar. Installation of
a smaller pup joint (10 to 20 ft) at the top of the
reservoir can act as a marker for exact depth
corelation
• Nuclear logs can be used as they respond to fluid
saturation/porosity behind casing. Less
frequently use with guns as source is nuclear

239
 Depth Corelation
• In most cases a combo of CCL and GR is used
above the gun to corelate within 1-2 ft of the
target zones

240
 Safety Procedure
• Charge itself do not pose danger until armed
• Concern of stray current during the wireline
operation misfiring the gun. Precautions
– Radiosilence on the rig and adjacent location
– No welding
– No crane operation
– No high amperage lights in the drill floor vicinity
– Cathodic protection system shutdown temporarily

241
 Safety Procedure
• Danger of stray current misfiring exists from
the time gun is armed to a safe depth
downhole say a min. of 500 ft
• Shutdown procedure also observed during
gun retrieval until it is checked for all charges
being fired
• With TCP, stray current concern remains if
electrical detonation system is used

242
 Gun Length
• Retrievable or semi-expendable gun lengths
are limited to lubricator length
• Weight limited to the tensile strength of cable
• Normally 15-40 ft
• If perforated interval requirement is more,
multiple trips required
• Perforating starts with lowest interval or
interval with lowest perm and then moves up
243
 Perforating Multiple Zones
• If 3 intervals each of 10 ft to be perforated, it
is possible to make a single gun with 3
sections that can be detonated with a switch
system
• If zones are large, normally be perforated with
individual guns

244
 Temperature Effects
• Charges can spontaneously detonate if exposed
to high temperature
• RDX will detonate at 340 oF
• Other explosives available, stable up to 500 oF
• Stability also depends on duration of exposure
• In most wireline jobs, the gun will never warm up
to BHT because of thermal lag and also in a newly
completed well, the completion fluid will not had
the time to warm up
• TCP, exposure is more, so more caution in design
245
 Casing Damage
• Present trend is to use large charges in largest
guns and high spf
• Casing damage has increased
– Casing steel grade and compressive strength
– Quality of cement sheath and extend of radial
support
– Shot density in any plane will influence the casing
stress
• Damage if occurs is in the form of splits in the
axial direction between perfs
246
 Gun Orientation
• In deviated wells, as gun size is smaller than
casing size, clearance will affect performance
• Beneficial to use 0o phasing & magnetic
positioning device to fire in the low side
where gun is in contact with casing
• Retrievable hollow carrier guns known as
scallop guns were developed that has the wall
opposite the charge machined to reduce the
thickness. Further refinement – hyperdome
scallop that reduces the energy of the jet
247
Improved Gun
Design

248
 Improved
Gun Design

249
 Charge Quality
• King et al. indicated that some charges live up
to the API RP 43 tests but some give inferior
performance
• Many factors could be the reason
– Age of charges
– Conditions of storage

250
 Gun System Assessment for Deployment

• 2 1/8 inch scallop through tubing gun giving

12 inch penetration in Berea SS
• 4 inch wireline conveyed casing gun giving 17
inch penetration
• Compare for the following scenario
– Both guns for use in low compressive strength
chalk with Cf = 4000 psi
– Both guns for use in high strength rock with Cf =
12,000 and 18,000 psi respectively
251
Solution on Assessment Comparison

252
 Advanced Well Systems
• Horizontal wells
• Extended or ultra reach wells
• Multi-lateral wells
• Intelligent (smart) wells
• Coiled tubing drilling and completions
• Underbalanced operations
• Fractured Horizontal wells

253
Advanced Well Systems

254
 Horizontal Wells
• Defined as long laterals horizontal or parallel
to the bedding plane

255
 Extended Reach Wells
• Lateral reach goes much more than the
vertical depth of the reservoir (has gone up to
10 times for moderate depth reservoirs)

256
 Multi-lateral Wells
• Wells with two or more branches joined to a
main or mother well bore. Ex. of a dual-
opposed configuration

257
 Coiled Tubing Drilling
• Coiled tubing drilling uses continuous pipe
spooled onto a reel
• Drill bit is powered by a downhole mud motor
• Can run thru an existing completion
• Would be of a smaller diameter and lengths
than conventional

258
 Underbalanced Drilling
• Lighter mud is used such that BHP is lower than
formation pressure
• Safety provided by adequate pressure control &
fluid handling at surface (rotating head
essentially, a seal that diverts the fluids to a
separator and allows rotation)
• Advantages are
– Reduced formation damage (no invasion of mud)
– Increased rate of penetration due to low BHP
– No lost circulation and differential sticking problems
259
 Horizontal Well with Multiple Fractures

• Extremely low permeability reservoirs such as

shale gas/oil, tight gas/oil, horizontal wells
have to be further fractured at many places

260
Well Productivity (J)

261
Horizontal Well with Multiple Fractures

262
Horizontal Well vs. Vertical Well Productivity

263
Completions in Horizontal Wells

264
 Intelligent (“Smart”) Wells
• Wells that can not only measure downhole
rates, fluid composition, pressure but also
control and regulate production/injection and
optimize them
• Main driver is better reservoir management in
horizontal wells offshore
– Each flow unit is efficiently extracted
– Unwanted fluids such as water are minimized
– Ability to control intervals in horizontal wells
reduces the cost of difficult workover
265
Intelligent (“Smart”)
Well

266
Drawbacks of Conventional Workover
• Unavailability of equipment, crew, diving
support vessel
• A typical straddle isolation (ex. water zone
shut-off) can take up to 10 days plus deferred
oil during intervention. Very expensive job
• Inherent risk due to mis-settings, elastomer
swelling and failure to retrieve
• Constraint of downward development without
drilling the plugs
267
A straddle assembly has
two packers connected
to each other in a
manner that isolates the
section between the two
packers from the zones
above and below
assembly

268
 Cases that Benefit from Selective
Management
• Thin zones
• Compartmentalized reservoirs
• Vertically isolated sands
• Heterogeneous sands

269
Thin Zones

270
Thin Zones with Smart Completions Now

271
Compartmentalization
Costly to have
individual wells for
each compartment

Individual sand
management is not
there for optimized
272
production
 Compartmentalization
Sequential / multiple completions can be done for each
compartment. Problem could be very low production rates
and very high intervention cost for each completion

273
Compartmentalization Best solution is to use an
“intelligent” well with
independent
compartment control

274
Coiled Tubing
Unit Rigged up
on Wellhead

275
Well Services, Rajahmundry Asset,
ONGC India (All slides in blue)

276
Well Services, Rajahmundry Asset,
ONGC India (All slides in blue)

277
Well Services, Rajahmundry Asset,
ONGC India (All slides in blue)

278
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TTV is tubing tester valve that tests the
tubing for pressure integrity
LTSA going into packer is not clear
RIH is rigging in the hole

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