Satellite

Communications
Engr. Leah Q. Santos
Faculty, Eng’g-EcE dept.
Introduction
 Satellite- A celestial body that orbits around
a planet

 Communications Satellites- Man-made

satellites that orbit earth, providing a
multitude of communication functions to a
wide variety of consumers, including military,
governmental, private and commercial
subscriber
Introduction
 Transponder - A satellite radio repeater
which a satellite may have many.
Consists of :
 input Bandlimiting device (BPF)
 input low-noise amplifier (LNA)
 frequency translator
 low level amplifier
 output bandpass filter
Introduction
 Satellite System - consists of one or more
satellite space vehicles, a ground-based
station to control the operation of the
system, and a user network of earth
stations that provides the interface
facilities for the transmission and reception
of terrestrial communications traffic
through the satellite system.
Basics: How do Satellites Work
 Two Stations on Earth want to communicate
through radio broadcast but are too far away
to use conventional means.
 The two stations can use a satellite as a relay
station for their communication
 One Earth Station sends a transmission to the
satellite. This is called a Uplink.
 The satellite Transponder converts the signal
and sends it down to the second earth
station. This is called a Downlink.
Basic Elements

Satellite communications are comprised of

2 main components:

•The Satellite
•The Ground Station.
The Earth Station
The Earth Station
 Earth station is the common name for every
installation located on the Earth's surface and
intended for communication (transmission and/or
reception) with one or more satellites.
 Earth stations include all devices and installations for
satellite communications: handheld devices for
mobile satellite telephony, briefcase satellite phones,
satellite TV reception, as well as installations that are
less familiar, eg VSAT stations and satellite broadcast
TV stations.
 The term Earth station refers to the collection of
equipment that is needed to perform
communications via satellite: the antenna (often a
dish) and the associated equipment
(receiver/decoder, transmitter).
Earth Stations
High Capacity Stations - Costly, complex Services
communities large enough to require feeder line
access to the Earth Station
Mid-Capacity SES - Used by Corporations for
Private Networks Videoconferencing, electronic mail,
data,Voice Services. Each earth station can be
connected to any other station in the network.
VSAT Network - One Master Earth Station and
many VSAT terminals sharing the MES. Limited to data
transmissions, digital voice and digital video.
Receive-Only Earth Station - Voice only, Data only, TV
Receive only or a combination.
The parts in the sky
 The two main parts in the sky common to all
satellites are called the payload and the bus.

Payload: transponders, antennas

Bus: physical platform, remote control

The Payload
 The payload represents all equipment a
satellite needs to do its job. This can include
antennas, cameras, radar and electronics.
 The payload is different for every satellite. For
example, the payload for a weather satellite
includes cameras to take pictures of cloud
formations, while the payload for a
communications satellite includes large
antennas to transmit TV or telephone signals
to Earth.
The Transponder
 The transponder is the key component for satellite
communications: it is the part of the payload that
takes the signals received from the transmitting
Earth station, filters and translates these signals and
then redirects them to the transmitting antenna on
board. Communications satellites carry a large
number of transponders on board (normally from
six to more than 24), enabling them to deliver
multiple channels of communication at the same
time. These channels are called carriers.
The Antenna
 Antennas that receive the original signal from
the transmitting Earth station and re-transmit
this signal to the receive stations on Earth.
 The antennas that were used in the past to do
this were omni-directional (transmitting signals
in every direction) and not very effective.
They were replaced by more efficient high-
gain antennas (most often dish shaped)
pointing quite precisely towards the areas
they were servicing.
The Bus
 The bus is the part of the satellite that carries
the payload and all its equipment into space.
It is the physical platform that holds all the
satellite's parts together and that provides
electrical power, navigation, control and
propulsion to the spacecraft. The bus also
contains equipment that allows the satellite to
communicate with Earth, a kind of 'remote
control'.
The GPS
 The nominal GPS Operational Constellation
consists of 24 satellites that orbit the earth in 12
hours. There are often more than 24 operational
satellites as new ones are launched to replace
older satellites. The satellite orbits repeat almost
the same ground track (as the earth turns beneath
them) once each day. The orbit altitude is such
that the satellites repeat the same track and
configuration over any point approximately each
24 hours (4 minutes earlier each day). There are six
orbital planes (with nominally four SVs in each),
equally spaced (60 degrees apart), and inclined
at about fifty-five degrees with respect to the
equatorial plane. This constellation provides the
user with between five and eight SVs visible from
any point on the earth.
Basics: Advantages of Satellites
 The
advantages of satellite
communication over terrestrial
communication are:
 The coverage area of a satellite greatly
exceeds that of a terrestrial system.
 Transmission cost of a satellite is
independent of the distance from the
center of the coverage area.
 Satellite to Satellite communication is very
precise.
 Higher Bandwidths are available for use.
Basics: Disadvantages of Satellites
 Thedisadvantages of satellite
communication:
 Launching satellites into orbit is costly.
 Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming
used up.
 There is a larger propagation delay in
satellite communication than in terrestrial
communication.
Basics: How Satellites are used
 Service Types
 Fixed Service Satellites (FSS)
• Example: Point to Point Communication
 Broadcast Service Satellites (BSS)
• Example: Satellite Television/Radio
• Also called Direct Broadcast Service (DBS).
 Mobile Service Satellites (MSS)
• Example: Satellite Phones
Introduction
 Bus- includes control mechanism that support
the payload operation.
 Payload - The actual user information
conveyed through the system.
 Passive Reflector- A type of satellite wherein it
simply “bounces” signals from one place to
another.
 Moon- A natural satellite of Earth, visible by
reflection of sunlight having a slightly elliptical
orbit.
Introduction
 Radio Beacon Transmitters - Used by passive
satellites for tracking and ranging purposes.
 Active Satellite - A type of satellite capable of
receiving, amplifying, reshaping, regenerating
and retransmitting information.
A Selective Communications
Satellite Chronology
 1945 Arthur C. Clarke Article: "Extra-
Terrestrial Relays"
 1955 John R. Pierce Article: "Orbital Radio
Relays"
 1956 First Trans-Atlantic Telephone Cable:
TAT-1
A Selective Communications
Satellite Chronology
 Sputnik I- Launched by Russia, the first
active earth satellite in 1957. It transmitted
telemetry for 21 days.
 Explorer I - Satellite launched by U.S., it
transmitted telemetry information for
nearly five months.
 Score - Satellite launched by NASA in
1958, a 150-pound conical-shaped
satellite. It was the first artificial satellite
used for relaying terrestrial
communications.
A Selective Communications
Satellite Chronology
 1960 1st Successful DELTA Launch Vehicle
 1960 AT&T applies to FCC for experimental satellite
communications license
 1961 Formal start of TELSTAR, RELAY, and SYNCOM
Programs
 Telstar I - 1962 , the first active satellite to
simultaneously receive and transmit radio signals.
 1962 Communications Satellite Act (U.S.)
 Telstar II - Launched in 1963, and was used for
telephone television, facsimile and data
transmission and accomplished the first successful
transatlantic video transmission.
 Syncom I - Launched in February 1963, was the first
attempt to place a geosynchronous satellite into
orbit.
A Selective Communications
Satellite Chronology
 1962 Communications Satellite Act (U.S.)
 Intelsat I - It was the first commercial
telecommunications satellite. It launched
from Cape Kennedy in 1965 and used two
transponders. Also called as Early Birds. It
stands for International
Telecommunications Satellite.
 Molya - Domestic satellite launched by
former Soviet Union in 1966. It means
“lighting”.
A Selective Communications
Satellite Chronology
 1962 Communications Satellite Act (U.S.)
 Intelsat I - It was the first commercial
telecommunications satellite. It launched
from Cape Kennedy in 1965 and used two
transponders. Also called as Early Birds. It
stands for International
Telecommunications Satellite.
 Molya - Domestic satellite launched by
former Soviet Union in 1966. It means
“lighting”.
A Selective Communications
Satellite Chronology
 1969 INTELSAT-III series provides global coverage
 1972 ANIK: 1st Domestic Communications Satellite
(Canada)
 1974 WESTAR: 1st U.S. Domestic Communications
Satellite
 1975 INTELSAT-IVA: 1st use of dual-polarization
 1975 RCA SATCOM: 1st operational body-stabilized
comm. satellite
 1976 MARISAT: 1st mobile communications satellite
 1976 PALAPA: 3rd country (Indonesia) to launch
domestic comm. satellite
 1979 INMARSAT formed.
 1988 TAT-8: 1st Fiber-Optic Trans-Atlantic telephone
cable
Kepler’s Laws
 Johannes Kepler - A German astronomer who
discovered the laws thatgoverns satellite motion.
Kepler’s Laws
It may be simply stated as:
The planets move in ellipses with the sun at one
focus
The line joining the sun and the planet sweeps out
equal intervals of time.
The square of the time of revolution of a planet
divided by the cube of its mean distance from the
sun gives a number that is the same for all planets.
Kepler’s 1st Law
The planets move in ellipses with the sun at one
focus
Barycenter- center of mass
Eccentricity (ε)- abnormality of the ellipse
α2 − β2
ε=
α
where:
ε – eccentricity
α – semimajor axis
β – semiminor axis
Kepler’s 1st Law
Kepler’s 2nd Law
Law of areas (1609)
The line joining the sun and the planet sweeps
out equal intervals of time.

Perigee - The point in an orbit closest to earth

Apogee - The point in an orbit farthest from the
earth
Kepler’s 2nd Law
Kepler’s 3rd Law
Harmonic law (1619)
The square of the time of revolution of a planet divided
by the cube of its mean distance from the sun gives a
number that is the same for all planets.

It states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is

proportional to the cube of the mean distance
between the primary and the satellite.
2Τ 𝑡𝑠
α = 𝐴𝑃 3 𝑃=
𝑡𝑒
where: α – semimajor axis (km) 𝑡𝑠 - sidereal day (23 hrs and 56 min)
A – constant ( 42241.0979unitless) 𝑡𝑒 - one rev of earth on its own axis (24 hrs)
P – mean solar earth days
Satellite orbits
 Circular
orbit – the speed of rotation is
constant
Satellite orbits
 Elliptical
orbit – the speed depends on the
height the satellite above the earth.
Satellite orbits
 Progade or posigrade orbit – the satellite
is orbiting in the same direction as Earth’s
rotation (counterclockwise) and an
angular velocity greater than that of Earth
(𝜔𝑠 > 𝜔𝑒 )
 Retrograde orbit – the satellite is orbiting in
the opposite direction as Earth’s rotation
(counterclockwise) and an angular
velocity less than that of Earth (𝜔𝑠 < 𝜔𝑒 )
Satellite Orbital Patterns
 Perigee - The point in an orbit closest to
earth
 Apogee - The point in an orbit farthest
from the earth.
Satellite Orbital Patterns
 Inclined Orbits – virtually all orbits except
those that travel directly above the equator
or directly over the North and South Poles.
 Equatorial Orbit - when the satellite rotates
in an orbit directly above the equator, usually
in a circular path.
 Polar Orbit - when the satellite rotates in path
that takes over the North and the South poles
in an orbit that is close to earth and passes
over and very close to both the North and
South Poles.
Satellite Orbital Patterns
Satellite Orbital Patterns
 Angle of Inclination - The angle between the
earth’s equatorial plane and the orbital plane
of a satellite measured counter clockwise at
the point in the orbit where it crosses the
equatorial plane traveling from south to north
called the ascending node.
 Descending Node -the point where the polar
or inclines orbit crosses the equatorial plane
travelling from north to south
 Line of Nodes - The line joining the ascending
and descending node
Satellite Orbital Patterns
Satellite Elevation Categories
 Satellite Orbits
 GEO
 LEO
 MEO
 Molniya Orbit
 HAPs
Geostationary Earth Orbit
(GEO)
 These satellites are in orbit 35,863 km
above the earth’s surface along the
equator.
 Objects in Geostationary orbit revolve
around the earth at the same speed as
the earth rotates. This means GEO
satellites remain in the same position
relative to the surface of earth.
GEO (cont.)
 Advantages
 A GEO satellite’s distance from earth gives
it a large coverage area, almost a fourth of
the earth’s surface.
 GEO satellites have a 24 hour view of a
particular area.
 These factors make it ideal for satellite
broadcast and other multipoint
applications.
GEO (cont.)
 Disadvantages
 A GEO satellite’s distance also cause it to
have both a comparatively weak signal
and a time delay in the signal, which is bad
for point to point communication.
 GEO satellites, centered above the
equator, have difficulty broadcasting
signals to near polar regions
GEO (cont.)
Three geo.
Satellite in
Clarke orbits
GEO (cont.)
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
 LEO satellites are much closer to the earth
than GEO satellites, ranging from 500 to
1,500 km above the surface.
 LEO satellites don’t stay in fixed position
relative to the surface, and are only visible
for 15 to 20 minutes each pass.
 A network of LEO satellites is necessary for
LEO satellites to be useful
LEO (cont.)
 Advantages
 A LEO satellite’s proximity to earth
compared to a GEO satellite gives it a
better signal strength and less of a time
delay, which makes it better for point to
point communication.
 A LEO satellite’s smaller area of coverage is
less of a waste of bandwidth.
LEO (cont.)
 Disadvantages
 A network of LEO satellites is needed, which
can be costly
 LEO satellites have to compensate for
Doppler shifts cause by their relative
movement.
 Atmospheric drag effects LEO satellites,
causing gradual orbital deterioration.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
 A MEO satellite is in orbit somewhere between
8,000 km and 18,000 km above the earth’s
surface.
 MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in
functionality.
 MEO satellites are visible for much longer
periods of time than LEO satellites, usually
between 2 to 8 hours.
 MEO satellites have a larger coverage area
than LEO satellites.
MEO (cont.)
 Advantage
 A MEO satellite’s longer duration of visibility
and wider footprint means fewer satellites
are needed in a MEO network than a LEO
network.
 Disadvantage
 A MEO satellite’s distance gives it a longer
time delay and weaker signal than a LEO
satellite, though not as bad as a GEO
satellite.
Other Orbits
 Molniya Orbit Satellites
 Used by Russia for decades.
 Molniya Orbit is an elliptical orbit. The
satellite remains in a nearly fixed position
relative to earth for eight hours.
 A series of three Molniya satellites can act
like a GEO satellite.
 Useful in near polar regions.
Other Orbits (cont.)
 High Altitude Platform (HAP)
 One of the newest ideas in satellite
communication.
 A blimp or plane around 20 km above the
earth’s surface is used as a satellite.
 HAPs would have very small coverage
area, but would have a comparatively
strong signal.
 Cheaper to put in position, but would
require a lot of them in a network.
Frequency Bands
 Different
kinds of satellites use different
frequency bands.
 L–Band: 1 to 2 GHz, used by MSS
 S-Band: 2 to 4 GHz, used by MSS, NASA, deep space
research
 C-Band: 4 to 8 GHz, used by FSS
 X-Band: 8 to 12.5 GHz, used by FSS and in terrestrial
imaging, ex: military and meteorological satellites
 Ku-Band: 12.5 to 18 GHz: used by FSS and BSS (DBS)
 K-Band: 18 to 26.5 GHz: used by FSS and BSS
 Ka-Band: 26.5 to 40 GHz: used by FSS
Capacity Allocation
 FDMA
 FAMA-FDMA
 DAMA-FDMA
 TDMA
 Advantages over FDMA
FDMA
 Satellitefrequency is already broken into
bands, and is broken in to smaller
channels in Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA).
 Overall bandwidth within a frequency
band is increased due to frequency reuse
(a frequency is used by two carriers with
orthogonal polarization).
FDMA (cont.)
 Thenumber of sub-channels is limited by
three factors:
 Thermal noise (too weak a signal will be
effected by background noise).
 Intermodulation noise (too strong a signal
will cause noise).
 Crosstalk (cause by excessive frequency
reusing).
FDMA (cont.)
 FDMA can be performed in two ways:
 Fixed-assignment multiple access (FAMA):
The sub-channel assignments are of a fixed
allotment. Ideal for broadcast satellite
communication.
 Demand-assignment multiple access
(DAMA): The sub-channel allotment
changes based on demand. Ideal for point
to point communication.
TDMA
 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
breaks a transmission into multiple time
slots, each one dedicated to a different
transmitter.
 TDMA is increasingly becoming more
widespread in satellite communication.
 TDMA uses the same techniques (FAMA
and DAMA) as FDMA does.
TDMA (cont.)
 Advantages of TDMA over FDMA.
 Digital equipment used in time division
multiplexing is increasingly becoming
cheaper.
 There are advantages in digital transmission
techniques. Ex: error correction.
 Lack of intermodulation noise means
increased efficiency.
Terms:
 Boresight – the direction of maximum gain
of an earth station antenna
 Subsatellite point (SSP) - a point on the
surface of earth directly below the
satellite.
 Look angles – to ensure that the earth
station antenna is aligned
Terms:
 Look angles
 Angle of elevation (elevation angle) – the
vertical angle formed between the
direction of travel of an electromagnetic
wave radiated from an earth station
antenna pointing directly toward a satellite
and the horizontal plane.
5 degrees – acceptable minimum angle of
elevation
SSP
Attenuation
Terms:
 Look angles
 Azimuth Angle – the horizontal pointing
angle of an earth station antenna
Lookangles
Lookangles
Example:
An earth station is located in Houston, Texas
which has a longitude of 95.5°W and a
latitude of 29.5°W. The satellite of interest is
RCA’s Satcom 1. Determine the azimuth
angle and elevation angle for the earth
station.
Example:
An earth station is located in Houston, Texas
which has a longitude of 95.5°W and a
latitude of 29.5°W. The satellite of interest is
RCA’s Satcom 1. Determine the azimuth
angle and elevation angle for the earth
station.
Example: An earth station is located in
Houston, Texas which has a
longitude of 95.5°W and a
latitude of 29.5°W. The satellite
of interest is RCA’s Satcom 1.
Determine the azimuth angle
and elevation angle for the
earth station.

𝛥𝐿 = 135° − 95.5°
𝛥𝐿 = 39.5°
Example:
𝛥𝐿 = 135° − 95.5°
𝛥𝐿 = 39.5°

𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟:

𝑎𝑧𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 59°

Example:
𝛥𝐿 = 135° − 95.5°
𝛥𝐿 = 39.5°

𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟:

𝑎𝑧𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 59°

𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 35°
Terms:
 Limits of visibility – determine the farthest
satellite away that can be seen looking
east or west of the earth station’s
longitude.
Satellite classifications
Types of Satellites ( accdg. to applications)
 Astronomical satellites are satellites used for
observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other
outer space objects.

 Communications satellites are artificial satellites

stationed in space for the purposes of
telecommunications using radio at microwave
frequencies. Most communications satellites use
geosynchronous orbits or near-geostationary orbits,
although some recent systems use low Earth-orbiting
satellites.
Types of Satellites ( accdg. to applications)
 Earth observation satellites are satellites specifically
designed to observe Earth from orbit, similar to
reconnaissance satellites but intended for non-
military uses such as environmental monitoring,
meteorology, map making etc.

 Navigation satellites are satellites which use radio

time signals transmitted to enable mobile receivers
on the ground to determine their exact location. The
relatively clear line of sight between the satellites and
receivers on the ground, combined with ever-
improving electronics, allows satellite navigation
systems to measure location to accuracies on the
order of a few metres in real time.
Types of Satellites ( accdg. to applications)
 Reconnaissance satellites are Earth observation
satellite or communications satellite deployed for
military or intelligence applications.

 Space stations are man-made structures that are

designed for human beings to live on in outer space.
A space station is distinguished from other manned
spacecraft by its lack of major propulsion or landing
facilities - instead, other vehicles are used as
transport to and from the station. Space stations are
designed for medium-term living in orbit, for periods
of weeks, months, or even years.
Types of Satellites ( accdg. to applications)
 Weather satellites are satellites that primarily are used
to monitor the weather and/or climate of the Earth.

 Drag-free satellites are satellites that offers an

environment that is as isolated as possible from the
forces of nature. A properly designed drag-free-
satellite proof mass is uncoupled from the rest of the
Universe to a remarkable degree.

 Miniaturized_Satellites are satellites of unusually low

weights and small sizes. New classifications are used
to categorieze these satellites: minisatellite (500-
200kg), microsatellite (below 100kg), nanosatellite
(below 10kg).
Types of Satellites ( accdg. to structures)
 Spinner Satellite – uses the angular momentum of its
spinning body to provide roll and yaw stabilization

 Three- axis stabilizer – the body remains fixed relative

to earth’s surface, while an internal subsystem
provides roll and yaw stabilization.
Types of Satellites ( accdg. to structures)
Satellite Antenna Radiation Patterns:
Footprints
 Footprint or footprint map – the geographical
representation of a satellite antenna’s radiation
pattern.
Types:
 Spot beams – smallest beams, concentrate their
power to very small geographical areas and
proportionately higher EIRP’s.
 zonal beams – next to spot beams target 10% of the
earth surface
 Hermispherical beams - target 20% of the earth
surface
 Earth/global beams - target 42% of the earth
surface