Course “Textbook”

• Recommended course reading material: There is no textbook. Published

literature will come from the instructor as well as your own literature
searches. The following publications and/or textbooks are
recommended for additional reading and supplemental to the course
content:
• Y. Bozorgnia and V. V. Bertero (eds.), 2004. Earthquake Engineering:
From engineering seismology to performance-based engineering, CRC
press.
• S. Kramer, 1996. Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, in Civil
Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, W. J. Hall (ed.), Prentice-Hall
International Series.
• Hunter, J.A. and Crow, H.L. (ed.), 2012. Shear Wave Velocity
Measurement Guidelines for Canadian Seismic Site Characterization in
Soil and Rock; Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 7078, 227 p.,
doi:10.4095/291753
• S. Foti, C. G. Lai, G. Rix, and C. Strobbia, 2015. Surface wave methods
for near-surface site characterization, CRC Press.

1
 Earthquake waveform
This recording is extremely far away from the event (2300
km). We call these teleseismic (> 1000 km) recordings.
What would the waveform look like if the source and
site were much closer (> 10 but < 100 km away)?

2
 (Record at the edge of Mexico City on rock)

( Record in Mexico City on soft clay)

Time (sec)

f = Frequency (waves/sec, cycles/sec, Hz)

T = Period (sec/wave)
T = 1/f ; f = 1/T
 Lecture 02
• Earthquake severity or intensity
• History of earthquake engineering
• Significant earthquakes and their impact
• Seismic hazard in Canada
• How do we predict earthquake ground motions?

4
 5

Magnitude vs. Intensity

Magnitude (M): conveys size of the earthquake

• Each earthquake has a particular magnitude
(size, strength, energy release)
• MANY magnitude scales

Intensity: shaking level or amplitude at a location

• Each earthquake generates a range of
intensities in different locations
Lower intensities Higher intensities
determined from determined from
felt observations damage observations
 Intensity 6

 Intensity is a measure of the

effects of an earthquake on
the natural and built
environment.
Intensity changes with:
 Earthquake size
Earthquake magnitude increases,
intensity increases

 Epicentral distance
Distance increases, intensity decreases

 Local site conditions

Stiffer ground, intensity decreases
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John_Clague/publication/225567967/figure/fig3/AS:302792372703234@1449202735
183/Figure-3-Modified-Mercalli-Intensity-maps-of-the-1872-northern-Washington-and-1946.png
 Engineering Seismology
• Prior to seismometers (1890’s)
• Earthquake shaking based on felt effects and observed
damage = severity or intensity of shaking
• Qualitative description of amplitude, frequency content,
duration
• Produce intensity or isoseismal map for an earthquake
• Still in use today ! (wherever we don’t have a seismometer)

• Seismometer recordings (1900’s onward)

• Amplitude of ground shaking is recorded with time
• Quantitative measure of amplitude, frequency content,
duration
• Produce “ShakeMaps” of PGA, PGV, SA (1 s) … showing how
the selected shaking metric varies spatially

7
• Example of
isoseismal
(intensity) map
based on felt
reports & damage
• 2001 M 6.8
Nisqually, WA,
earthquake

8
 CIIM – Community Internet Intensity Map

“Did You Feel It” (DYFI) report

• Were you asleep?
• How would you describe the shaking?
• Was it difficult to stand or walk?
• Did you notice swinging of doors or hanging
objects?
• Did you hear creaking or other noises?
• Did objects rattle, topple over, or fall off shelves?

ShakeMap (MMI)

9
• Twitter: Number of (log)tweets in 1-min intervals
KROPIVNITSKAYA, TIAMPO, QIN, BAUER (2017). Real-Time Earthquake
Intensity Estimation Using Streaming Data Analysis of Social and Physical
Sensors, Pure Appl. Geophys. 174 (2017), 2331–2349.

10
 Intensity Scales
• Originally, Rossi-Forel intensity (1-10) scale, 1883
• Today, different countries/regions use their own
intensity scale ….Why?
• Different building materials and types (damage observations)

• Japan Meteorological Scale (JMA)

• 1-7 intensity scale
• MSK (1964)  European Macroseismic Scale (EMS)-98
• 1-11 intensity scale
• MCS (1931)  Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI)
• I-XII intensity scale
• Used in North America
11
 MMI I 12

Felt observations (II-VI) Damage observations (VI-XII)

http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/doc/mmi.html
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/shakemap/images/scale.jpg
 MMI III 13

Felt observations (II-VI) Damage observations (VI-XII)

http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/doc/mmi.html
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/shakemap/images/scale.jpg
 MMI VI 14

Felt observations (II-VI) Damage observations (VI-XII)

http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/doc/mmi.html
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/shakemap/images/scale.jpg
 MMI IX 15

Felt observations (II-VI) Damage observations (VI-XII)

http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/doc/mmi.html
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/shakemap/images/scale.jpg
 MMI XII 16

Felt observations (II-VI) Damage observations (VI-XII)

http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/doc/mmi.html
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/shakemap/images/scale.jpg
• Example of
isoseismal
(intensity) map
based on felt
reports & damage
• 2001 M 6.8
Nisqually, WA,
earthquake
• $2 billion in
damage

17
 Lecture 02
• Earthquake severity or intensity
• History of earthquake engineering
• Significant earthquakes and their impact
• Seismic hazard in Canada
• How do we predict earthquake ground motions?

18
Kramer, 1996
 1755 Lisbon earthquake
• M 8.6, November 1st 1755
• Followed by tsunami, and out-of-control fire for
several days
• Destroyed downtown Lisbon
• Rebuilt according to an urban plan
• Enforcement of new construction rules based on
collapsed buildings; otherwise demolished by the
king
• First seismic and fire resistance provisions in
Europe
20
 Seismic design after
1755 Lisbon earthquake
• ‘Marques de Pombal’ – king’s PM resp. for reconstruction
• “Pombalinos” buildings – low cost, sturdy, uniformity &
simple. From bottom to top:
1. Timber piles to overcome poor site conditions
2. Stone masonry raft foundation
3. Street-level floor ceiling of stone arches or brick vaults
(mitigates fire & flooding; watertable v. near surface)
4. Upper floors are 3D timber grid, “Gaiola Pombalino”
• Masonry outer (façade) walls (reduces fire between bldgs)
• Timber-framed interior (structural) walls, perpendicular to
outer walls, with mixed masonry infilling
• Floorboards and floor beams also perpendicular to each
other
• Gridding of walls and floors helps building ‘brace’, improved
dynamic behaviour
21
Gomes, 2011, MSc Thesis, Structural system of Lisbon’s buildings, Inst. Tech. Lisbon
 Pombalino building

22
Cardoso, Lopes, Bento (2004). WCEE, Paper 918
 Pombalino building

23
Cardoso, Lopes, Bento (2004). WCEE Paper 918
 Gaiola
wood truss structure

24
Cardoso, Lopes, Bento (2004). WCEE Paper 918
First accurate gms recorded
 • 26 fatalities
1964 M 7.5 Niigata, Japan, earthquake
• PGA 0.16 g 
disproportionate to
observed damage
• Liquefaction occurred in
new deposits or reclaimed
land areas; buildings tilted
• 3,018 buildings destroyed
from differential settling
San Francisco

1989 M 6.9 Loma Prieta, California

Oakland • “Structures designed to or
retrofitted to the standards at the
time performed at or above
expectation”
• Uneven damage distribution 
land fill areas; Marina district in SF,
Bay area in Oakland
• Loma Prieta emphasized
importance of site effects

• Also highlighted soft-storey damage

 Kawase, 1996

1995 M 6.9 Kobe earthquake, Japan

Nanshin Highway
Linear zone of significant damage 
Basin edge effect
 Earthquakes in Canada
Assigned reading:
• Cassidy, Rogers, Lamontagne, Halchuk, Adams
(2010). Canada’s Earthquakes: ‘The Good, the Bad,
and the Ugly’, Geoscience Canada, 37, 16 pg.

33
34
35
CSZ: Three Types of Earthquakes

2. North America
Plate EQs (1946)
Shallow

3. Juan de Fuca
1. Subduction Zone
Plate EQs
EQs (1700)
(2001)
Big One
Deep
37
38
 Lecture 02
• Earthquake severity or intensity
• History of earthquake engineering
• Significant earthquakes and their impact
• Seismic hazard in Canada
• How do we predict earthquake ground motions?

39
 Earthquake Ground Shaking
• Depends on:
1. Earthquake source (size,
mechanism) and depth
2. Material properties along
travel path
3. Local site conditions
ln Y = f(source) + f(path) +
f(site) + error
Intensity (amplitude) decreases as:
• Magnitude decreases
• Distance increases
• Ground becomes stiffer M7
Described by ground motion prediction M6
equation (GMPE) or model (GMM) M5
40
Ground motion prediction
equations (GMPEs)

41
 How are GMPEs developed?
Empirical GMPEs
• Record earthquakes!, Many magnitudes, distances,
site conditions …need a network and 10’s of years
• Perform regression of ground motion data to
develop GMPE model

Without data?
• Use simulations (synthetic dataset) or adjust
empirical model from data elsewhere
• Hybrid methods useful to fill data gaps
42
 GMPEs in the 2015 NBCC
• 5th generation seismic hazard model in the 2015 National
Building Code of Canada (NBCC)
• The ground motions used for seismic design
Atkinson & Adams (2013). Ground motion prediction equations for
application to the 2015 Canadian national seismic hazard maps, Can. J.
Civ. Eng. 40: 988–998.
• Defines a lower, central, and upper GMPE for each type of
event that contributes to the hazard
• Western Canada (4 GMPEs)
• Crustal, offshore crustal, inslab, interface earthquakes
• Eastern Canada (1 GMPE)
• Crustal earthquakes

43
 Lower, central, upper GMPEs Mean GMPE (1 stdev) for
for M 6.5 crustal events in M 4.5, 6, 7.5 crustal
western Canada. events in eastern NA

damage
damage

felt

felt

Felt is ~1 %g; 10 cm/s2

Damage is ~10 %g; 100 cm/s2 44
 damage

felt

Atkinson et al. 2012 White Paper 48